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 |  موضوع: كتاب Chemical Principles - Seventh Edition الثلاثاء 24 نوفمبر 2015, 9:40 pm | |
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Chemical Principles - Seventh Edition
Steven S. Zumdahl
University of Illinois
Donald J. DeCoste
University of Illinois
ويتناول الموضوعات الأتية :
1 Chemists and Chemistry 1
1.1 Thinking Like a Chemist 3
1.2 A Real-World Chemistry Problem 3
Chemistry Explorers Alice Williams’s Focus: The Structure of
Nucleic Acids 4
Chemistry Explorers Stephanie Burns: Chemist, Executive 5
1.3 The Scientific Method 7
Chemical Insights Critical Units! 9
1.4 Industrial Chemistry 10
Chemical Insights A Note-able Achievement 11
1.5 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Real-World Chemistry 11
Key Terms 14
For Review 14
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 15
2.1 The Early History of Chemistry 16
2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws 17
2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 19
2.4 Cannizzaro’s Interpretation 21
Chemical Insights Seeing Atoms 22
2.5 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom 24
Chemical Insights Marie Curie: Founder of Radioactivity 26
2.6 The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction 29
2.7 Molecules and Ions 30
2.8 An Introduction to the Periodic Table 34
2.9 Naming Simple Compounds 35
Chemical Insights Hassium Fits Right In 36
Chemical Insights Playing Tag 42
Key Terms 45
For Review 45
Discussion Questions and Exercises 46
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iv Contents
3 Stoichiometry 53
3.1 Atomic Masses 54
Chemical Insights Elemental Analysis Catches
Elephant Poachers 55
3.2 The Mole 57
3.3 Molar Mass 59
Chemical Insights Measuring the Masses of Large Molecules
or Making Elephants Fly 60
3.4 Conceptual Problem Solving 61
3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds 62
3.6 Determining the Formula of a Compound 64
3.7 Chemical Equations 69
3.8 Balancing Chemical Equations 71
3.9 Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants
and Products 73
Chemical Insights High Mountains—Low Octane 74
3.10 Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant 76
Key Terms 82
For Review 82
Discussion Questions and Exercises 83
4 Types of Chemical Reactions
and Solution Stoichiometry 94
4.1 Water, the Common Solvent 95
4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong
and Weak Electrolytes 97
4.3 The Composition of Solutions 100
4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions 106
4.5 Precipitation Reactions 106
4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution 111
4.7 Selective Precipitation 112
Chemical Insights Chemical Analysis of Cockroaches 113
4.8 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 114
4.9 Acid–Base Reactions 118
4.10 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 123
Chemical Insights State-of-the-Art Analysis 125
4.11 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 128
4.12 Simple Oxidation–Reduction Titrations 135
Key Terms 137
For Review 137
Discussion Questions and Exercises 138
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Contents v
5 Gases 148
5.1 Early Experiments 149
5.2 The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro 150
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 153
5.4 Gas Stoichiometry 156
5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 158
Chemical Insights The Chemistry of Air Bags 160
5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 162
Chemical Insights Separating Gases 163
5.7 Effusion and Diffusion 170
5.8 Collisions of Gas Particles with the Container Walls 174
5.9 Intermolecular Collisions 176
5.10 Real Gases 178
Chemistry Explorers Kenneth Suslick Practices
Sound Chemistry 181
5.11 Characteristics of Several Real Gases 181
5.12 Chemistry in the Atmosphere 182
Chemical Insights The Importance of Oxygen 184
Chemistry Explorers Kristie A. Boering and Ronald C. Cohen
Study the Earth’s Atmosphere 185
Chemical Insights Acid Rain: An Expensive Problem 186
Key Terms 188
For Review 188
Discussion Questions and Exercises 189
6 Chemical Equilibrium 203
6.1 The Equilibrium Condition 205
6.2 The Equilibrium Constant 207
6.3 Equilibrium Expressions Involving Pressures 210
6.4 The Concept of Activity 212
6.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria 213
6.6 Applications of the Equilibrium Constant 214
6.7 Solving Equilibrium Problems 218
6.8 Le Châtelier’s Principle 222
6.9 Equilibria Involving Real Gases 228
Key Terms 229
For Review 229
Discussion Questions and Exercises 230
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vi Contents
7 Acids and Bases 240
7.1 The Nature of Acids and Bases 241
7.2 Acid Strength 243
7.3 The pH Scale 247
7.4 Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions 248
7.5 Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions 249
7.6 Bases 255
Chemical Insights Amines 259
7.7 Polyprotic Acids 260
7.8 Acid–Base Properties of Salts 268
7.9 Acid Solutions in Which Water Contributes to the H1
Concentration 275
7.10 Strong Acid Solutions in Which Water Contributes
to the H1 Concentration 280
7.11 Strategy for Solving Acid–Base Problems: A Summary 280
Key Terms 282
For Review 282
Discussion Questions and Exercises 284
8 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria 292
8.1 Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion 293
8.2 Buffered Solutions 295
8.3 Exact Treatment of Buffered Solutions 303
8.4 Buffer Capacity 305
8.5 Titrations and pH Curves 308
8.6 Acid–Base Indicators 321
8.7 Titration of Polyprotic Acids 326
8.8 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product 330
8.9 Precipitation and Qualitative Analysis 336
Chemistry Explorers Yi Lu Researches the Role of Metals
in Biological Systems 340
8.10 Complex Ion Equilibria 342
Key Terms 347
For Review 347
Discussion Questions and Exercises 349
9 Energy, Enthalpy, and Thermochemistry 360
9.1 The Nature of Energy 361
Chemical Insights Bees Are Hot 364
9.2 Enthalpy 367
9.3 Thermodynamics of Ideal Gases 368
9.4 Calorimetry 374
9.5 Hess’s Law 381
Chemical Insights Firewalking: Magic or Science? 383
9.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 384
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Contents vii
9.7 Present Sources of Energy 389
Chemical Insights Hiding Carbon Dioxide 392
Chemical Insights Geoengineering 394
9.8 New Energy Sources 394
Chemical Insights Farming the Wind 396
Chemical Insights Heat Packs 400
Key Terms 401
For Review 401
Discussion Questions and Exercises 402
10 Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy 412
10.1 Spontaneous Processes 413
10.2 The Isothermal Expansion and Compression of an Ideal Gas 419
10.3 The Definition of Entropy 426
Chemical Insights Entropy: An Organizing Force? 428
10.4 Entropy and Physical Changes 429
10.5 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 431
10.6 The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity 432
10.7 Free Energy 435
10.8 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions 437
10.9 Free Energy and Chemical Reactions 441
10.10 The Dependence of Free Energy on Pressure 445
10.11 Free Energy and Equilibrium 448
10.12 Free Energy and Work 454
10.13 Reversible and Irreversible Processes: A Summary 455
10.14 Adiabatic Processes 457
Key Terms 460
For Review 460
Discussion Questions and Exercises 462
11 Electrochemistry 473
11.1 Galvanic Cells 474
Chemical Insights Dental Resistance 475
11.2 Standard Reduction Potentials 477
11.3 Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free Energy 483
11.4 Dependence of the Cell Potential on Concentration 486
11.5 Batteries 493
Chemical Insights Electrochemical Window Shades 494
Chemical Insights Fuel Cells—Portable Energy 496
11.6 Corrosion 497
Chemical Insights Refurbishing the Lady 498
Chemical Insights Paint That Stops Rust—Completely 501
11.7 Electrolysis 502
Chemical Insights The Chemistry of Sunken Treasure 505
11.8 Commercial Electrolytic Processes 506
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viii Contents
Key Terms 510
For Review 510
Discussion Questions and Exercises 512
12 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory 523
12.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 524
Chemical Insights New-Wave Sunscreens 526
12.2 The Nature of Matter 527
12.3 The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen 531
12.4 The Bohr Model 533
Chemical Insights The New, Improved Atomic Clock 536
12.5 The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Atom 537
Chemical Insights Fireworks 538
Chemical Insights Electrons as Waves 542
12.6 The Particle in a Box 543
Chemistry Explorers Charles Sykes Researches
Surface Architecture 544
12.7 The Wave Equation for the Hydrogen Atom 549
Chemical Insights 0.035 Femtometer Is a Big Deal 550
12.8 The Physical Meaning of a Wave Function 551
12.9 The Characteristics of Hydrogen Orbitals 553
12.10 Electron Spin and the Pauli Principle 557
12.11 Polyelectronic Atoms 558
12.12 The History of the Periodic Table 560
12.13 The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table 562
Chemical Insights The Chemistry of Copernicium 563
12.14 Further Development of the Polyelectronic Model 569
12.15 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 571
Chemical Insights Why Is Mercury a Liquid? 574
12.16 The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals 579
Chemical Insights Lithium: Behavior Medicine 582
Key Terms 583
For Review 583
Discussion Questions and Exercises 584
13 Bonding: General Concepts 595
13.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 596
Chemical Insights No Lead Pencils 599
13.2 Electronegativity 600
13.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments 602
13.4 Ions: Electron Configurations and Sizes 606
13.5 Formation of Binary Ionic Compounds 609
13.6 Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds 613
13.7 The Covalent Chemical Bond: A Model 615
13.8 Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions 618
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Contents ix
13.9 The Localized Electron Bonding Model 621
13.10 Lewis Structures 622
13.11 Resonance 626
13.12 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 627
Chemical Insights Hyperconjugation—The Octet Rules 632
13.13 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model 637
Chemical Insights Chemical Structure and Communication:
Semiochemicals 646
Chemical Insights Smelling and Tasting Electronically 648
Key Terms 651
For Review 651
Discussion Questions and Exercises 652
14 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals 663
14.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model 664
14.2 The Molecular Orbital Model 676
14.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 680
14.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 686
14.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular
Orbital Models 688
Chemical Insights The Always Interesting NO 689
14.6 Orbitals: Human Inventions 691
Chemistry Explorers Jonathan Kenny Looks at Spectroscopin the Real World 692
14.7 Molecular Spectroscopy: An Introduction 692
14.8 Electronic Spectroscopy 693
14.9 Vibrational Spectroscopy 696
14.10 Rotational Spectroscopy 699
14.11 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 701
Chemical Insights NMR and Oenology 705
Key Terms 707
For Review 707
Discussion Questions and Exercises 708
15 Chemical Kinetics 717
15.1 Reaction Rates 718
Chemical Insights Femtochemistry 721
15.2 Rate Laws: An Introduction 722
15.3 Determining the Form of the Rate Law 725
15.4 The Integrated Rate Law 729
15.5 Rate Laws: A Summary 737
15.6 Reaction Mechanisms 739
Chemical Insights Ultracold Reactions 740
Chemistry Explorers Christopher Rose-Petruck Studies
Ultrafast X-ray Spectroscopy 741
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x Contents
Chemical Insights Seeing Reaction Mechanisms 744
15.7 The Steady-State Approximation 746
15.8 A Model for Chemical Kinetics 749
15.9 Catalysis 753
Chemical Insights TiO2—One of Nature’s Most
Versatile Materials 754
Chemistry Explorers Christopher Arumainayagam Researches
the Interactions of Molecules with Surfaces 756
Chemical Insights Enzymes: Nature’s Catalysts 758
Chemical Insights Hot, New Enzymes 761
Key Terms 763
For Review 763
Discussion Questions and Exercises 764
16 Liquids and Solids 781
16.1 Intermolecular Forces 783
16.2 The Liquid State 785
Chemical Insights Getting a Grip 786
Chemical Insights Smart Fluids 788
16.3 An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids 789
Chemical Insights Conch Clues 791
16.4 Structure and Bonding in Metals 794
Chemical Insights Closest Packing of M & Ms 796
Chemical Insights Seething Surfaces 797
16.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids 802
Chemical Insights Graphene—Miracle Substance? 804
Chemical Insights Superconductivity 806
Chemical Insights Greenhouse Glass 808
Chemical Insights Explosive Sniffer 809
Chemical Insights Gallium Arsenide Lasers 810
Chemical Insights Transistors and Integrated Circuits 812
16.6 Molecular Solids 815
16.7 Ionic Solids 816
16.8 Structures of Actual Ionic Solids 820
16.9 Lattice Defects 821
16.10 Vapor Pressure and Changes of State 822
16.11 Phase Diagrams 829
Chemical Insights Making Diamonds at Low Pressures:
Fooling Mother Nature 830
Chemical Insights Smaller Can Be Better 834
16.12 Nanotechnology 835
Chemical Insights Nanogenerators: Power from Motion 836
Key Terms 837
For Review 837
Discussion Questions and Exercises 839
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Contents xi
17 Properties of Solutions 851
17.1 Solution Composition 852
17.2 The Thermodynamics of Solution Formation 853
Chemical Insights An Energy Solution 854
Chemical Insights Miracle Solvents 857
17.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 858
Chemical Insights Ionic Liquids? 861
Chemical Insights The Lake Nyos Tragedy 863
17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions 863
17.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 868
17.6 Osmotic Pressure 871
17.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 875
17.8 Colloids 877
Chemical Insights Organisms and Ice Formation 878
Key Terms 879
For Review 879
Discussion Questions and Exercises 880
18 The Representative Elements 891
18.1 A Survey of the Representative Elements 892
18.2 The Group 1A Metals 896
18.3 The Chemistry of Hydrogen 898
18.4 The Group 2A Elements 900
18.5 The Group 3A Elements 902
18.6 The Group 4A Elements 904
Chemical Insights Beethoven: Hair Is the Story 905
18.7 The Group 5A Elements 906
18.8 The Chemistry of Nitrogen 907
Chemical Insights An Explosive Discovery 910
Chemical Insights Nitrous Oxide: Laughing Gas That Propels
Whipped Cream and Cars 914
18.9 The Chemistry of Phosphorus 915
18.10 The Group 6A Elements 918
18.11 The Chemistry of Oxygen 919
18.12 The Chemistry of Sulfur 920
18.13 The Group 7A Elements 922
18.14 The Group 8A Elements 926
Chemical Insights Automatic Sunglasses 927
Key Terms 929
For Review 929
Exercises 931
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xii Contents
19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry 939
19.1 The Transition Metals: A Survey 940
Chemical Insights The Lanthanides: Critical Elements 941
19.2 The First-Row Transition Metals 946
Chemical Insights Titanium Makes Great Bicycles 948
19.3 Coordination Compounds 952
19.4 Isomerism 956
Chemical Insights Alfred Werner: Coordination Chemist 958
Chemical Insights The Importance of Being cis 960
Chemical Insights Chirality: Why Is It Important? 962
19.5 Bonding in Complex Ions: The Localized Electron Model 963
19.6 The Crystal Field Model 964
19.7 The Molecular Orbital Model 970
Chemical Insights Transition Metal Ions Lend Color to Gems 973
19.8 The Biological Importance of Coordination Complexes 974
Key Terms 978
For Review 978
Discussion Questions and Exercises 979
20 The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View 987
20.1 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay 988
Chemical Insights Does Antimatter Matter? 992
20.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 992
Chemical Insights Stellar Nucleosynthesis 994
20.3 Nuclear Transformations 996
20.4 Detection and Uses of Radioactivity 998
20.5 Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus 1002
20.6 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 1005
20.7 Effects of Radiation 1008
Chemical Insights Nuclear Physics: An Introduction 1009
Key Terms 1011
For Review 1011
Exercises 1012
21 Organic and Biochemical Molecules 1019
21.1 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons 1020
Chemical Insights Chemistry in the Garden 1021
21.2 Alkenes and Alkynes 1029
21.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1031
21.4 Hydrocarbon Derivatives 1033
21.5 Polymers 1040
Chemical Insights Wallace Hume Carothers 1046
Chemical Insights Heal Thyself 1048
21.6 Natural Polymers 1049
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Contents xiii
Chemical Insights Tanning in the Shade 1056
Key Terms 1064
For Review 1064
Exercises 1066
Appendix 1 Mathematical Procedures A1
A1.1 Exponential Notation A1
A1.2 Logarithms A3
A1.3 Graphing Functions A4
A1.4 Solving Quadratic Equations A5
A1.5 Uncertainties in Measurements A7
A1.6 Significant Figures A12
Appendix 2 Units of Measurement and Conversions
Among Units A14
A2.1 Measurements A14
A2.2 Unit Conversions A15
Appendix 3 Spectral Analysis A16
Appendix 4 Selected Thermodynamic Data A19
Appendix 5 Equilibrium Constants and Reduction
Potentials A22
Glossary A25
Answers to Selected Exercises A38
Index A73
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