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عدد المساهمات : 19001 التقييم : 35505 تاريخ التسجيل : 01/07/2009 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير منتدى هندسة الإنتاج والتصميم الميكانيكى
| موضوع: كتاب A Practical Approach to Continuous Casting of Copper-Based Alloys and Precious Metals الخميس 03 مارس 2022, 2:56 pm | |
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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب A Practical Approach to Continuous Casting of Copper-Based Alloys and Precious Metals Robert Wilson
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents Introduction 1 CONTINUOUS CASTING 1.1 History of Process and Evolution of Machine Design 1.2 Details of Casting Process 1.2.1 Mode of Casting 1.2.2 Vertical Continuous Casting 1.2.3 Vertical Upward Casting 1.2.4 Rautomead Upcast System 1.2.5 Pressure Upcast System 1.3 Horizontal Continuous Casting 1.3.1 Principle of Horizontal Continuous Casting 1 1 335677 78 1.4 Crucibles Used in Continuous Casting 8 1.4.1 Ceramic Crucible Assemblies Used in Induction Melting-Casting 9 1.4.2 Graphite Crucible 9 1.4.2.1 Top Protection and Crucible Liner 10 1.4.2.2 Crucible Liner 11 1.4.2.3 Crucible Die Seal 11 1.4.2.4 Graphite Baffle 12 1.5 Construction and Operation of Horizontal Continuous Casting Furnace Utilising Integrated Melt and Cast Sequence 12 1.5.1 Furnace Construction 13 1.5.1.1 Refractory Insulation 13 1.5.1.2 Low Thermal Mass Insulation 13 1.5.1.3 Heating Elements 13 1.5.1.4 Temperature Control 14 1.5.2 Industrial Horizontal Continuous Casting Furnace 14 1.6 Casting Dies and Cooler Assembly 14 1.6.1 Strip Die and Cooler Assembly 15 1.6.1.1 Nitrogen Protection Within the 'Air Gap' 16 1.6.1.2 Outward Taper on Top Face of Die 17 1.6.1.3 Fitting Starter Strip 17 1.6.2 Jacket Cooled Die Used for Rod and Billet 17 1.6.3 Probe Cooled Die for Rod and Narrow Strip Casting 18 1.6.3.1 Probe or Plate Cooled Die for Narrow Strip 19 viiContents 1.6.4 Dies Used in Continuous Casting of Tube 1.6.5 High Efficiency Cooler Applied to Small Diameter Rod 1.8 Casting Practice 24 1.8.1 Graphite Casting Die 24 1.8.2 Assembly of Graphite Die and and Cooler-Jacket Type Cooler 25 1.8.2.1 Fitting Starter Rods 27 1.8.3 Fitting Starter Strip to Graphite Die and Cooler-Strip Type Cooler 27 1.8.4 Assembly of Die Insert to High Speed Cooler for Small Diameter Rod 1.9 Safety from Liquid Metal Runout 1.9.1 Failure of Cooling Water Supply 1.9.2 Break in Continuous Casting Billet Within Die 1.9.2.1 Die TemperatureIWithdrawal Interruption 1.9.2.2 Incorporating Safety Plunger at Die Exit 1.10 Trouble Shooting 1.10.1 Irregular Pulse Length 1.10.2 Cast Surface Finish-Deterioration with Time' 1.10.3 Inverse Segregation 1.10.4 Pulse Cracking 1.10.5 Porosity 1.10.6 Periodic Surface Gouging 1.10.7 Zinc Segregation on Brasses 1.10.8 Edge Cracking on Strip 1.10.9 Heat Balance Checks 1.7 Withdrawal 1.7.1 AC Servo Drive 1.7.2 Withdrawal Using Cam-Operated Indexing 1.7.3 Withdrawal Using Pneumatic Slide Feed 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 33 34 2 HEAT TRANSFER 37 2.1 Mode of Heat Transfer Along the Mould 37 2.1.1 The Influence of 'Air Gap' 38 2.1.2 Water Spray at Die Exit 38 2.1.3 Vertical and Horizontal Casting 39 2.1.4 Manipulation of Heat Transfer in Region of h; 39 2.1.4.1 Copper Sleeve Cooler Assembly for Rod Casting 39 2.1.4.2 Effect of Withdrawal Characteristics on Shell Formation 40 2.1.4.3 Mode of Freezing and Effect on Product Quality 41 2.1.4.4 Upcasting of Copper Rod 43 2.1.4.5 Cooler Assembly Strip 43 2.1.4.6 Jacket- and Probe-Cooled Die Assembly 43 2.2 Overall Energy Balance from Properties of Materials 44 2.2.1 Typical Heat Balance on Selected Casting Runs 45 viiiContents 3 CONTINUOUS CASTING PLANT and EQUIPMENT 51 Casting Equipment 51 3.1 'Unicast' System Introduced by United Wire, Edinburgh 51 3.1.1 'Unicast' Horizontal Casting System 52 3.2 Rautomead International, Dundee 53 3.2.1 Precious Metal Strip Casting 53 3.2.2 Vertical Casting of Precious Metals 53 3.2.3 Computer Monitoring and Process Display with Data Logging of Operating Parameters 'Rautocast 2000' 54 3.2.4 Rautomead Upwards Vertical Continuous Casting Plant 54 3.3 Ewen Technology - New Jersey, USA 54 3.4 Wertli 55 3.4.1 Furnace Design 55 3.4.2 The Wertli Drive Concept 56 3.4.3 Wertli Casting Mould/Cooler Design for Strip 56 3.4.3.1 Water Flow and Cooler Chamber Design 56 3.4.4 Wertli Data Recording 'Capvis' 57 3.5 Mannesmann Demag Continuous Casting 58 3.5.1 Microprocess Control 'Demag Computocast' 58 3.6 Graining Furnace - Schultheiss GmbH, Pforzheim, Germany 59 3.7 Hazelett Strip Casting Process 59 3.8 Outokumpu Upcasting 59 3.8.1 Operating Principle 60 3.8.1.1 Melting Furnace 60 3.8.1.2 Holding and Casting Furnace 61 3.8.1.3 Production Capacity 61 3.9 History of Properzi 'Wheel Casting' Technology 61 3.9.1 Equipment Capacity 62 3.9.2 Casting Wheel 63 3.9.2.1 Casting Wheel Insulation 'Sooting' 63 3.9.2.2 Rolling, Pickling and Coiling 63 3.9.3 Production of Elecrolytic-Grade Copper Rod from Copper Scrap 63 3.9.3.1 Typical Raw Material Copper Scrap 64 3.9.3.2 The Properzi-La Farga Thermal Process 64 3.9.3.3 Casting and Rolling 66 3.10 Southwire Continuous Casting Rod Process 66 3.10.1 The SRC Process 66 3.10.1.1 Vertical Shaft Furnace 67 3.10.1.2 Tundish and Automatic Metal-Pouring System (AMPS) 67 3.10.1.3 Casting Wheel 67 3.10.1.4 Rolling Mill 67 ixContents 3.10.2 Cast Bar Quality 68 3.10.3 Superheat and Control of Chemistry 68 3.10.4 Cast Structure 69 3.11 OHNO Continuous Casting Process 69 3.11.1 The OHNO Continuous Casting System 70 3.11.2 Industrial Application of the OHNO Process 71 4 GRAPHITE and REFRACTORY CERAMICS used in CONTINUOUS CASTING 73 Graphite 73 4.1 Graphite Manufacture 73 4.2 Properties 74 4.2.1 Reaction of Graphite with Molten Metals 74 4.2.2 Compatibility of Graphite with Various Metal Metals 74 4.2.3 Solubility of Carbon in Selected Molten Metals 76 4.3 Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Commercially Available Die-Grade Graphites 77 4.3.1 Thermal Conductivity 77 4.3.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Graphites - Effect of Temperature 78 4.3.3 Thermal Expansion of Graphite and Various Ceramics 78 4.3.4 Mechanical Strength of Graphite Effect of Temperature 78 4.3.5 Bulk Density (ASTM C559-85) 79 4.3.6 Specific Electrical Resistance (ASTM C611-84) 79 4.4 Commercial Graphites used in Continuous Casting 81 4.4.1 Crucible-Grade Graphite 81 4.4.2 Die-Grade Graphite 81 4.4.2.1 Premium Fine Grained Graphite 82 4.4.2.2 Graphite Die-Grade Selection 82 4.5 Machining Guide for Graphite 82 4.6 'GRAFOIL' Flexible Graphite 82 Ceramics used in Continuous Casting 85 4.7 Properties 85 4.7.1 Alumina (Alz03) 85 4.7.2 Zirconia (Zr02) 86 4.7.3 Magnesia (MgO) 86 4.7.4 BerYllia (BeO) 86 4.7.5 Silicon Carbide 86 4.7.6 Chrome Alumina 87 4.7.7 Mullite 87 4.7.8 Sillimanite 87 xContents 4.8 Ceramic Die Material Boron Nitride (BN) 87 4.9 Thermal Properties of Selected Ceramics Compared to Graphite 88 4.9.1 Thermal Conductivity 88 4.9.2 Thermal Expansion 88 4.10 Low Thermal Mass Insulation 89 4.11 Monolithic Refractories 90 4.12 Ceramic Fibre Paper 90 5 CONTINUOUS CASTING OF COPPER-BASED ALLOYS 91 5.1 High Purity Copper 91 5.1.1 Cathode 91 5.1.2 Oxide-Free Copper BS ClODCI02 93 5.2 Deoxidation of Copper 93 5.2.1 Data on Rate of Deoxidation on Controlled Casting Run on Copper 96 5.2.2 Copper Deoxidation by Graphite Bed Filtration 97 5.2.3 Production Application of Graphite Deoxidation 97 5.2.3.1 Outokumpu Upcast 98 5.2.3.2 Rautomead Continuous Casting Equipment 98 5.3 Vertical Upcast Process for Production of OFHC Copper Rod 98 5.3.1 Casting Operation 99 5.3.2 Rod Withdrawal 100 5.3.3 Product Purity and Residual Elements 100 5.4 Copper-Phosphorus Deoxidised 101 5.4.1 Continuous Casting Data for Copper (Phosphorus Deoxidised) Alloys 101 5.5 Continuous Casting of High-Purity Copper 101 5.5.1 Details of the Plant 101 5.5.2 Casting Data on High-Purity Copper 103 5.6 Continuous Casting of Cu: Cd and Cu: Mg Alloys 104 5.6.1 Cu: Cd Alloys 104 5.6.2 Cu :Mg Alloys 104 5.6.3 Mechanical Properties of Cu-OF, Cu: Cd and Cu: Mg 107 5.6.4 Comparison of Properties of Cu-OF, Cu: Cd and Cu: Mg 108 5.7 Brasses 108 5.7.1 Continuous Casting of a Brasses 110 5.7.2 Continuous Casting of a-f3 Brasses 113 5.7.2.1 Free Machining a-f3 Brasses 113 5.7.2.2 Specifications, Properties and Casting Data for a-f3 Leaded Brasses 113 XlContents 5.7.3 Other Low Per Cent Element Additions to Brasses 113 5.7.4 High-Tensile Brasses 113 5.7.4.1 Continuous Casting of High-Strength Brasses 117 5.7.5 Zinc Equivalent in Brasses 117 5.7.6 Zinc Rich-Surface Phase on Brasses 118 5.7.6.1 Mode of Formation of Zinc-Rich Phase 118 5.7.6.2 SEM Analyses on Zinc-Rich Surface Layer 119 5.7.6.3 Methods to Minimise the Zinc-Rich Layer 119 5.7.7 Charging and Effect of Minor Element Additions to Brasses 120 5.7.8 DZR Brass (Dezincification Resistant) 120 5.7.8.1 Continuous Casting of DZR Brass 122 5.8 Tin Bronzes 122 5.8.1 Copper-Tin Alloys 122 5.8.2 Copper- Tin-Phosphorus Alloys 123 5.8.2.1 Phosphor Bronze PBI03-C51900 124 5.8.3 Bronzes Containing Zinc 124 5.8.4 Bronzes Containing Lead 125 5.8.4.1 Leaded Gunmetal LG2-C83600 125 5.8.5 Specification, Properties and Casting Data for Cu: Sn Alloys 126 5.8.6 Silicon Bronze 127 5.9 Copper Aluminium Alloys 127 5.9.1 Castable Alloys 130 5.9.2 Melting and Casting Practice for Cu-AI Alloys 130 5.9.3 Nordic Alloy - Aluminium Bronze CuAl5Zn5Sn 133 5.9.3.1 Continuous Casting Characteristics 135 5.9.4 Mint Coinage 136 5.10 Nickel-Silver 136 5.10.1 Charging Sequence for Nickel Silver 136 5.11 Copper-Nickel Alloys 136 5.11.1 Casting Properties 138 5.11.1.1 Reaction with Graphite 138 5.12 Free Cutting Copper Alloys with Reduced or no Lead 139 5.12.1 Contamination of Copper With Bismuth 142 5.12.2 Literature Review 142 5.12.3 Continuous Casting Trials 143 5.12.4 Casting Characteristics 144 5.12.5 Federalloy" - Bismuth-Modified Tin Bronzes 144 5.12.5.1 Comparative Microstructural Study on CDA 932 (Leaded Brass - 7%Pb) versus Federalloy 111-932 Modified 20/0Bi, 0.050/0Pbmax) 145 5.12.5.2 Concast - Continuous Casting of Federalloys 148 6 CONTINUOUS CASTING OF PRECIOUS METALS 151 6.1 Gold 151 6.1.1 Gold-Melting Characteristics 152 xiiContents 6.2 Casting Equipment - Precious Metals 152 6.2.1 Resistance Heated 153 6.2.2 Induction Heated 153 6.3 Crucible and Die 154 6.3.2 Die and Cooler Assemblies used in Precious Metal Casting 154 6.3.1.1 Strip Casting - Wide Strip 154 6.3.1.2 Probe Cooled Die for Rod and Narrow Strip Casting 155 6.3.1.3 Thin Strip - Engineering Applications 155 6.3.1.4 Rod Casting 155 6.3.1.5 Small Diameter Rod and Thin Narrow Strip 155 6.4 Continuous Casting of Fine Gold 155 6.5 Typical Casting Run on Fine Gold Strip 156 6.6 Continuous Casting of Carat Gold 156 6.6.1 Gold Alloy 22 Carat 157 6.6.1.1 Gold-Silver-Copper 22 Carat 157 6.6.1.2 Continuous Casting Data 159 6.6.2 Gold Alloy 18 Carat 159 6.6.3 Gold Alloy 14 Carat 159 6.6.4 Gold Alloy 10 Carat 160 6.6.4.1 Hardness Characteristics of Au:Ag:Cu 18- 14- 10 Carat Alloys 160 6.6.5 Gold Alloy 9 Carat 163 6.6.6 Fractional Element Additions to Carat Gold 163 6.6.7 Contamination of Carat Gold 165 6.6.8 Summary - Casting Data Carat Gold 165 6.7 Coloured Gold 165 6.8 Ternary Gold Alloys - Phase Diagrams 167 6.8.1 Liquidus Isotherms Ag-Au-Cu System 169 6.8.2 Solidus Isotherms Ag-Au-Cu System 169 6.8.3 Ag-Au:Ag-Cu:Au-Cu Binary Diagrams 170 6.9 Mixing and Homogenisation in Gold Alloy Casting 170 6.9.1 Gas Stirring 171 6.9.2 Induction Melting 171 6.9.3 Pre-Ingot Casting 171 6.10 Graining 172 6.10.1 Equipment for Graining 172 6.10.2 Details of Graining Process 172 6.10.3 Graining of Sterling Silver 173 6.10.4 Graining Gold Alloys 175 6.11 Assaying Gold and Silver Alloys 175 6.12 Production Casting of Gold Strip 176 6.12.1 Data on Typical Casting Run on Fine Gold and Carat Gold Strip 176 6.12.2 Casting Procedure 177 xiiiContents 6.13 Production of Gold Solder-Filled Rod 177 6.13.1 Combined Casting Technique for Production of Cored Rod in Gold or Silver 178 6.13.1.1 Downstream Processing of Cast Cored Rod 179 6.13.1.2 Comments on Use of this Alternative Process 180 6.14 Casting of Gold Tube 180 6.14.1 Jacket-Cooled Cooler and Die Assembly 180 6.14.2 Probe-Cooled Tube Die Assembly 180 6.14.3 Upcasting of Tube 180 6.14.4 Vertical Casting 181 6.14.5 Horizontal Casting 181 6.14.6 Tilting Horizontal Furnace 181 6.14.7 Graphite Mandrel 182 6.14.8 Starter Tube 182 6.14.9 Start Up 183 6.14.10 Alloying 183 6.14.11 Tube Break 184 6.14.12 Re-Start After Break 184 6.14.13 Stop or Interruption of Tube Casting 185 6.14.14 End of Run and Crucible Draining 186 6.15 Gold-Tin Alloys 186 6.15.1 Alloy Constitution 186 6.15.2 Casting 186 6.15.3 Crucible and Die Material and Construction 186 6.15.4 Casting Procedure 187 6.15.4.1 Details on Typical Casting Run on Resistance-Heated Horizontal Unit 188 6.15.4.2 Casting of 88:12 Au:Ge Alloy 188 6.15.4.3 Casting 98:2 Au:Si Alloy 189 6.16 Continuous Casting of High-Purity Gold Plus Trace Beryllium 190 6.16.1 Typical Casting Run 191 6.17 Hardenable High-Carat Gold Alloys 191 6.18 Silver 6.18.1 Deoxidation of Silver 6.18.2 Casting Fine Silver 6.18.3 Silver Alloys - Silver-Copper 6.18.3.1 Constitution of Silver: Copper Alloys 6.18.3.2 Sterling Silver 6.18.4 Modified Sterling Silver Cast Using Pressure Upcaster 6.18.4.1 Casting Data 6.18.4.2 Properties of Cast Strip 6.18.5 Ag:Cu Eutectic Alloy and Similar Alloys 6.18.5.1 Casting Equipment 6.18.5.2 Casting Practice xivContents 6.18.5.3 Industrial Application of Continuous Casting of Silver Alloys 199 6.18.6 Silver-Copper-Germanium Alloy 200 6.18.6.1 Silver-Capper-Germanium Sterling Silver - Properties and Casting Data 200 6.18.7 Silver-Magnesium-Nickel - Oxidation Hardenable Alloy 200 6.18.7.1 Problems Associated with Casting Ag-Mg-Ni Alloy 202 6.18.7.2 Method Developed for Continuous Casting Ag-Mg-Ni A~~ 2m 6.18.7.3 Recommended Casting Procedure 202 6.19 Noble-Metal Brazing Alloys 203 6.19.1 Continuous Casting of Au-Cu Brazing Alloys 203 6.19.2 Casting Sequence 205 6.20 Ag: Cu :Pd Brazing Alloys 205 6.20.1 Pd Reaction with Graphite 205 6.20.2 Graphite Crucible and Die 205 6.20.3 Casting Sequence for Ag: Cu :Pd Alloys 206 6.21 Ag:Cu Eutectic Brazing Alloy Conforming to BS1845 206 6.22 Group AG Silver Brazing Alloys 206 6.22.1 Casting Sequence 207 6.23 Cu-P-Ag Brazing Alloys 207 6.23.1 Copper-Phosphorus Alloys 209 6.23.2 Copper-Phosphorus-Silver Alloys 211 6.23.2.1 Ductile Range in Ag-Cu-Cu3P Alloys Cast as Small Diameter Rods 212 6.23.3 Modified AFNOR and DIN Specifications (Restricted Phosphorus and Silver Contents) 213 6.23.4 Continuous Casting of Cu-P-Ag Brazing Alloys 214 6.23.4.1 Melting Practice (Modified CP2 Alloys) 214 6.23.4.2 Typical Casting Procedure for Modified CP2 Alloy 215 7 CONTINUOUS CASTING OF OTHER ALLOY SYSTEMS 217 7.1 Metal Alloy Systems which Dissolve or are Aggressive to Graphite 217 7.1.1 Ceramic Crucible Containment - Graphite Composite System 217 7.1.2 Induction Heated Ceramic Crucible Assembly 217 7.2 Die Ceramics 218 7.3 Die Design 218 7.3.1 Composite Ceramic-Graphite Die 218 7.3.2 Ceramic Die Insert in Copper Sleeve Cooler 219 7.3.3 Strip Die with Boron Nitride Insert 219 7.3.4 Ceramic Die Insert for Larger Section Sizes 220 xvContents 7.4 Casting Applications 7.4.1 Nickel-Chromium Alloys 7.4.2 Crucible Assembly 7.5 Palladium Alloys 7.5.1 Casting Details on Palladium-Silver Alloys 7.6 Gold-Platinum-Palladium Dental Alloys 7.7 Horizontal Continuous Casting of Special Steels and High-Nickel Alloys Applying Break-Ring Technology 223 7.7.1 The Principle of 'Break-Ring' Casting 225 7.7.1.1 Mould Design 226 7.7.2 The Influence of Casting Parameters on Product Surface Quality 226 7.7.3 Application of Break-Ring Casting 228 7.7.3.1 Casting Start-Up 228 7.8 Tin-Lead Alloys 228 7.8.1 Continuous Casting 229 7.8.1.1 Tin-Lead Alloy ASTM B32-68T-60A 231 7.8.1.2 Lead-Tin Alloy ASTM B32-60T 231 APPENDIX 1 233 National Standard Compositions for Copper Alloys ** selected aUoys** 233 ASTM standard compositions Tables 1 to 6 234 BS EN standard compositions Tables 7 to 10 241 DIN standard compositions Tables 11-15 245 **Full range and comparison of National Standards available from Copper Development Association, Verulam Industial Estate, 224 London Road, St Albans, Herts APPENDIX 2 Table 1 - Physical Properties of Metals Table 2 - Coefficient of thermal expansion/solidification shrinkage Table 3 - Conversion of atomic percent (mass percent) and vice versa Table 4 - Copper based master alloys APPENDIX 3 Table 1 - COSHH Occupational exposure limits UK regulations 1999 Table 2 - Cooling water specification Table 3 - Nitrogen specification Index 26 Index Key to abbreviations: D - diagrams; G - graphs; P - photographs; T - tables Air-gap, nitrogen protection, 16, 16D, 25D, 26 Assaying - gold/silver alloys, 175, 176 Asymmetric sump profile, 18, 19, 38 Boron nitride, 87 high cost compared to graphite, 87-88 properties compared to graphite, 87 proprietory grade formulation, 87, 88T thermal conductivity, 88T Brasses, 109-122 arsenical, 113, 114T, 120-122 constitution, 109, 110 copper-zinc phase diagram, 109G copper-zinc alloys, mechanical properties, 110G copper-zinc alloys, specification, 111T DZR alloy heat treatment, 121 DZR casting data, 122 DZR data, 120, 121 high-tensile casting data, 117T high-tensile specification, 116T lead distribution, 113 leaded free machining casting data, 115T leaded free machining specification, 114T leaded free machining, 113, 115T low per cent element additions, 113, 117 minor element additions, 120, 121T single phase, casting data, 112T zinc equivalent coefficient, 118, 118T zinc rich phase - mode of formation, 119 zinc rich phase, 118, 119P zinc rich phase, SEM analyses, 119, 120T Brazing alloys, copper phosphorus, 209-211 composition/properties, 210T phase diagram/section through, 210 Brazing alloys, copper phosphorus silver, 211-215 ductility range, ternary phase diagram, 212, 213T international standards/properties, 212T melting practice (modified alloys), 213, 214, 215T mode of freezing, 214 modified specification/restricted phosphorus and silver, 213 ternary phase diagram, 211G twin crucibles/improved mixing, 214-215T Brazing alloys, noble metal, 203-204 gold--copper, composition/properties, 203T gold-copper, casting practice 203T Brazing alloys, silver, 205-210 composition/properties, 210T silver/palladium - high affinity for oxygen, 207 silver-copper eutectic, 208T silver-copper-palladium casting, 207T silver-copper-palladium, composition/properties, 206T silver-copper-palladium, reaction with graphite, 205 silver-copper-zinc casting, 209T silver-copper-zinc, composition, 208T Break-ring technology, 223-228 application, break-ring casting, 228 break-ring ceramic material, 227 casting parameters/surface quality, 226 casting start-up, 228 cooler assembly, 225D copper alloy mould, 227 mould design, 226 principle of break-ring casting, 224-226 withdrawal conditions, 227 witness marks, primary/secondary, 226, 227 Bronzes, copper-tin alloys, 122-127 alpha + delta eutectoid, 122, 123 copper-tin alloy constitution, 122, 123 copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronze) casting data, 129T, 131T 261copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronze) specification, 127T copper-tin phase diagram, 123G copper-tin-phosphorus alloy constitution, 123, 124 copper-tin-phosphorus alloy phase diagram/section through, 124G gun metal and phosphor bronze specification, 129T, 130T gun metal leaded, 126GT manganese-silicon bronze specification/casting data, 132T phosphor bronze, thermal analyses, 125GT Casting dies and cooler assembly, 14-21 dies for tube casting, 19, 20D jacket die and cooler, 17D, 18 probe cooled die-rod and narrow strip, 18D, 19D rod, high-speed die/cooler, 20, 21, 21D, 22D, 28D small diameter rod - copper cooler jacket, 20, 21, 22D strip - outward taper, 17, 19 strip die and cooler, 15D, 16D strip die copper cooler - material specification, 15, 16 thermocouple fitting, 25D, 26, 27 Casting plant and equipment, 51-71 Casting practice, 24-28 assembly die-cooler, jacket type, 25D assembly high efficiency cooler-rod, 28 die thermocouple, 26 die thrust support, 26 finish on cooler surfaces, 26 fitting starter - strip die, 27 fitting starter rods, 27 grafoil sealing gasket, 26 graphite die machining/preparation, 24, 25 insulation on outer cooler surface, 26 nitrogen protection to die, 26, 39 solidification shrinkage, appendix 2 Ceramic fibre paper, general formulation, 90 Ceramics, 85-88 alumina composition - temperature rating, 85 beryllia composition - temperature rating, 86 chrome alumina composition - temperature rating, 87 composite graphite/ceramic, 85 fibre paper (Fiberfrax), 90 magnesia composition - temperature rating, 86 mullite composition - temperature rating, 87 Index silicon carbide composition - temperature rating, 86 sillimanite composition - temperature rating, 86 thermal conductivity compared to graphite, 89G thermal expansion compared to graphite, 79G zirconia composition-temperature rating, 86 zirconia stabilised/partially stabilised, 86 Closed-head casting process, 4D Copper-phosphorus deoxidised, 101, 102T Copper alloys, free machining with no lead, 139-148 bismuth, mechanism of embrittlement, 140 bismuth, alternative to lead, 139, 140 bismuth, mechanism of free machining, 142, 143 bismuth, wetting at grain boundaries, 140 casting trials, upward, 145T copper contamination with bismuth, 142 Federalloy comparative microstructural study, 145, 148P Federalloy specification and properties, 146T, 147T Federalloy, copper bismuth modified alloys, 144, 145 lead health hazard, 139, 140 literature review, 142, 142T, 143, 143T machinability lead/bismuth, 143T machinability enhancing elements, 143 patents review, 142T, 144T physical properties, bismuth/lead alloys, 144T potable water plumbing systems, 139 specification, 145T Copper aluminium alloys, 127-136 copper aluminium alloys constitution, 127, 128, 130 copper aluminium alloys specification, 134T copper aluminium casting procedure/data, 130, 131, 135T copper aluminium phase diagram, 133G Mint coinage data, 136 Nickel sensitivity, 135 Nordic alloy data, 133-136 Nordic alloy specification, 134T Copper-cadmium alloys, 104, 105 copper-cadmium casting data, lOST Copper cathode, 91, 92T Copper de-oxidation, 93-96 deoxidation - bed filtration application, 97, 98D deoxidation - INCRA data, 95, 96 deoxidation rate-controlled casting, 96G 262Copper de-oxidation (contd.) deoxidation - reaction with graphite, 94, 95G deoxidation by graphite bed filtration, 97G deoxidation rate - upcasting, 98 deoxidisers - elemental, 93, 94T Copper high purity, 91, 92T, 93T Copper magnesium alloys, 106-108 copper magnesium casting data, 106T copper magnesium upcast 20mm rod, 107T Cu-OF, Cu-Cd, Cu-Mg tensile properties, 108G Copper oxygen free, 93, 93T Copper-nickel alloys, 136-139 copper-nickel alloy phase diagram, 139G copper-nickel alloys, constitutions, 136, 138 copper-nickel casting data, 143T copper-nickel alloys specification, 142T copper-nickel reaction with graphite, 138 Crucibles used in continuous casting, 8-12 ceramic assembly with graphite carrier, 10D die seal grafoil, 11, 12 graphite baffle - floating, 102, 102D graphite baffle, lID graphite crucible die seal, lID graphite crucible liner, lID graphite, vertical/horizontal, lID impregnation with coal tar pitch, 10 induction melting-casting, 9D Ewen technology, USA, 54, 55 Gold - carat alloys - assaying 166T, 171, 172, 175 Gold - carat - contamination, 165 Gold - carat - fractional element additions, 163, 165 Gold - carat - general casting conditions, 166T, 167T Gold - casting equipment, 152-155 crucible - ceramic, 152 crucible - graphite 8-12, 1520, 154 die probe cooled - narrow strip, 155 die probe cooled, thin strip, 155 die rod and narrow strip, 155 die rod casting, 155 die strip, 154, 155 furnace induction heated, 153, 153D, 154 furnace resistance heated, 12D Gold - coloured, alloy systems, 165, 167 data ternary alloys, 165 NIHS/ISO standards, 167T Gold - hallmarking, 151, 192 Gold - solder filled rod, 177-179 combined casting technique, 178, 179, 178D Index comparison conventional/combined casting, 180 composition 9 carat, 178T downstream processing, ratio core to shell, 179, 179T method of production, conventional, 177, 178 silver cored rod, 180 Gold - tube casting, 180-186 alloying and assay, 183, 184 die assembly/start-up, 183 end of run/crucible draining, 185 graphite mandrel - details/fitting, 182 horizontal casting, 181, 182, horizontal crucible/die assembly, 1820D horizontal tilting furnace, 181 jacket cooled die assembly, 180 probe cooled die assembly, 180 start-up, 183 starter tube, fabrication and fitting, 182, 183 stop or interruption of casting, 185, 185D tube break and re-start, 184, 1853 upcasting, 180 vertical casting, advantages/disadvantages, 181, 185 Gold, 22 carat, 157-159 gold 22 carat, properties vs. composition, 158G gold, 22 carat, composition range and properties, 158T, gold, 22 carat, continuous casting data, 159, 160T gold alloy, 22 carat, general properties, 157 gold-silver-copper 22 carat, cast/cold work properties, 158G Gold, 21 carat, 159T Gold, 18 carat, 159, 160 gold 18 carat, age hardening, 162G gold, 18 carat, compilation, 159, 161T gold, 18 carat, strip casting, 177T Gold 14 carat, 159 gold 14 carat, age hardening, 162G gold 14 carat, compilation, 160, 161T Gold 10 carat, 160-163 gold 10 carat, age hardening, 163G Gold 9 carat, 163, 164 gold 9 carat, compilation, 164T gold 9 carat, properties vs. composition, 163, 164G Gold alloy, graining, 172-175 graining, process data, 172, 173D graining, proprietary equipment, (see 3.6), 172 graining, sterling silver, 175, 176GP Gold alloy, mixinglhomogenisation, 170-172 gold alloy gas stirring, 171 263gold alloy induction melting, 171 gold alloy pre-ingot casting, 171, 172 graining, process data, 172, 173D graining, proprietary equipment, (see 3.6), 172 graining, sterling silver, 173, 174GP Gold and silver assaying requirements, 175, 176 Gold high purity plus trace beryllium, 190, 191 continuous casting data 6mm rod, 191T gold plus (beryllium 0.0008%), 190, 191 Gold, fine, 155 24 carat strip casting, 157T, 176T continuous casting data, 155, 157T mechanical properties, fine gold, 156G Gold, pure, 151 carat values, theoretical 152T gold, pure properties, 151T gold, pure, melting characteristics, 152 Gold, 990 and above, harden able 191, 192 Gold, ternary phase diagrams, 167-170 gold-silver-copper liquidus projection, 168, 169, 168G gold-silver-copper, binary systems, 170, 171G gold-silver-copper solidus projection, 169, 170, 169G Gold-germanium industrial alloy, 188, 189 gold-germanium 88:12 eutectic alloy, 188, 189 gold-germanium casting as for gold tin, 188, 189 gold-germanium phase diagram, 189G Gold-platinum-palladium dental alloys, 223, 224T Gold-silicon industrial alloy, 189, 190 continuous casting data 6mm rod, 191 gold-silicon 98:2 wide freezing alloy, 189, 190 gold-silicon phase diagram, 190G gold-silicon, casting more difficult, 189 Gold-tin industrial alloy, 186-188 gold-20wt% tin, eutectic alloy, 186 gold-tin phase diagram, 187G graphite die-thin strip, 188D horizontal cast/thin strip, 186, 187 pre-alloy mixing required, 188 typical casting run details, 188 Gold strip, production casting runs, 157T, 176, 177T Graining furnace - Schultheiss, 59 graining, proprietary equipment, (see 3.6) Graining, process data, 171, 172D graining, sterling silver, 172, 173GP Index Graphite, 73-85 anisotropic properties, 73 baked carbon, 76 binder material, 73 bulk density, 79, 83T bulk filler material, 73 carbide forming elements, 77 co-efficient of thermal expansion, 78, 83T commercial graphites, 81, 83T contact/wetting angle, 74, 75T crucible grade, 81, 83T die graphite properties, 74, 83T die graphite selection, 81, 82, 83T, 84T electrical resistivity/specific electrical resistance, 77, 79, 81G electro-graphite, 73 extruded green shapes, 73 filter bed, 7, 97, 98D grafoil, 11, 12, 26, 82, 85 graphitisation, 73 graphitising cell, 74 heating elements, 14 isostatically moulded, 74 mechanical strength at temperature, 80G metals inert, 74 reaction with molten metals, 74, 75T solubility in metals, 76T thermal conductivity, 74, 77G thermal expansion graphite/ceramics, 79G transition elements, 77 wetting properties, 75T, 76 Gun metals, 125-130 casting data, 130 specification, 128, 129 Hazelett process, history, 3 anode Contilanoid, 59 strip casting, 59 Heat transfer, 36-49 air gap, 16, 16D, 37-38 asymmetric solidification profile, 37, 38, 39 axial cooling, 42P effect of withdrawal, 39, 40, 41D heat balance equations, 34, 44, 45 heat transfer coefficients, h., h., h., hw, 37, 38D heat transfer studies referred to, Thomson, et al., 37 jacket and probe cooled die, 43D latent heat, 37 mode of heat transfer along the mould, 37-38D multi-rod die assembly, 43D radial cooling, 42P solidification shell formation, 40, 41D 264Heat transfer (contd.) strip casting, 43D symbol annotation, 50 symmetric solidification profile, 37-38, 39 typical heat balance calculations, 45-50 water drop or bubble transfer, 39 water film transfer, 39 water sparge, 37, 38 Horizontal casting plant, industrial, 14D Horizontal continuous casting integrated melt and cast, 7, 8D, 12-14 furnace construction, 3 heating elements, 13 low thermal mass insulation, 13 refractory insulation, 13 temperature control, 13 Low thermal mass insulation materials 13, 89, 90 alumina-silicate modules, 89 ceramic board, 90 module construction, 90 operating temperature ranges, 90 refractory blanket, 89, 90 Mannesmann Demag, 58, 59 horizontal large billets, 58 micro melt plant, 58 micro process control, 58, 59 vertical casting (tilting frame), 58 Metals aggressive to graphite - ceramics/equipment 87, 88 217-220 boron nitride die, strip, 87, 88, 219, 220D casting practice, 222T ceramic crucible container, 217 ceramic die insert, copper cooler, 219D ceramic die insert, larger section, 220 ceramic die, combined jacket/probe cooler, 220D ceramic die, composite, 218D induction heated crucible, 217 Monolythic refractories, general formulation, 90 Nickel silver, 136-138 nickel silver casting data, 137T nickel silver properties, 136, nickel silver specification, 137T Nickel-chromium alloys, 220, 222 crucible assembly (see 1.4.1), 221, 222T Nitrogen gas specification, appendix 3 Ohno process, 69-71 details of system, 70, 70D industrial application, 71 Index product properties, 71 separation theory, 69 Outokumpu upcasting, 6, 6D, 59-61 channel melting furnace, 60 de-oxidation method, 60 introduction, 6, 6D operating principle, 60D production capacity, 60T refractory lining, 60 Palladium alloys, 221 dental alloys, 223 dental alloys, casting, 224T, 225T Plumbago, 10, 11, 13 Precious metals casting equipment, 152-154 induction heated melting rate, 153 induction heated, 153D resistance heated crucible, 182D, 12D strand withdrawal, 154 Precious metals, die assembly, 154, 155 copper plate cooler, 154 graphite strip die (see 1.6.1), 154 probe cooled die, rod/narrow strip, (see 1.6.3), 155 rod casting (see 1.6.2), 155 small diameter rod, (see 1.6.5), 155 starter strip fitting (see 1.6.1.3), 155 strip casting - wide to 200mm, 154 strip die, outward taper 0.10/0, 154 thin strip, engineering application,(see 1.6.3.1), 155 Pressure upcasting, 72, 101-105 equipment details, 72, 103T, 104 high-purity copper, 101-105 Properzi casting, 61-66 break -down rolling, 63 casting wheel details, 63 chemistry of thermal process, 64, 65 comparison ETP and FRHC copper rod, 65 electrolytic copper from scrap, 63 history of process, 61, 62 insulation sooting, 63 modern plant, 62D plant capacity, 62, Properzi - La Fargo thermal process, 64 typical scrap charge, 64T wheel casting - copper, 62 Rautomead equipment, 3,14,53,54,98-101 computer monitoring, 54 horizontal table top, 53 integrated melt and cast, 14D, 53 upwards vertical (see 5.12.3), 3, 54, 99D, 100D vertical casting tube, (see 6.14.4) 265Safety from liquid metal run-out, 28-30 break in continuous billet within die, 29, 30D die temperature/withdrawal interruption, 29-30 failure of cooling water supply, 29 Silver alloys, general casting practice, 197-200 crucible - ceramic versus graphite, 199 induction versus electrical resistance, 199,200 Silver - copper alloys, 193-198 constitution, 193 eutectic alloy (28.1 wt% copper), constitution, 197 eutectic alloy, casting practice, 198T phase diagram, 194G sterling silver, (92.50/0silver), 193 sterling silver, casting, 195T sterling silver - modified alloy, 195, 196 sterling silver, modified alloy, casting, 196 sterling silver, modified alloy, properties, 196G, 1977G Silver-copper-germanium alloy, 200 casting data, 201T composition/patent data, 200, 201 constitution, 200 Silver fine, 192-194 casting data, 194T deoxidation - in graphite, 192-193 oxygen absorption, 192 Silver-magnesium-nickel alloy, 200-203 casting practice typical, 203T casting procedure recommended, 202 casting, problems associated with, 202 constitution/oxidation hardenable alloy, 200, 202 Solidification shrinkage, appendix 2 Southwire process, (SRC) 3, 66-69 automated pouring system, 67 cast structure, 69 chemical specification materials involved, 69T chemistry control ETP copper, 68 details of casting wheel, 67, 68D history of process, 66 operation of rolling mill, 68 reactions in vertical shaft furnace, 67 typical plant lay-out, 66D Technica-Guss process, 3 Thermal analyses data, 124, 125G, 126G Thermal properties ceramics/graphite, 79T, 88, 89T, Tin-lead alloys, 2286-231 casting data (630/0tin 37% lead), 229, 230T casting data (800/0lead 200/0tin), 231, 231T metal casting die, 230D Index specification/ ASTM properties, 229T Tin Research Institute, TRI plant, 2, 5D Troubleshooting, 30-34 cast surface deteriorating with time, 31 edge cracking attributed to cooling (strip), 33, 34 inverse segregation - periodic over-dwell or push-back, 32 irregular pulse length, 31 nitrogen to die air gap - surface gouging, 16, 33 periodic interrupted/uninterrupted casting, 31D porosity - de-oxidation of melt, 33 pulse cracking - influence of withdrawal conditions, 32, 33 pulse cracking - tin-rich segregation or zinc-rich phase (brasses), 32,33 torque requirement to counteract traction forces, 31 zinc segregation (brasses) - 33, see section 5.7.6 Tube casting, 19, 1808, 181, 182D United Wire Unicast history, 3 United Wire Unicast, 50 Timex - recycling scrap, 52 unicast furnace, 50, 52D unicast horizontal system, 52 Up casting - vertical, OFHC copper, 98, 99T casting procedure, 99, 100 copper product purity, residual elements, 101 die and cooler assembly, 100D graphite system, 98, 99D rod withdrawal, cam indexer, 100 Vertical continuous casting plant - Poland & Lindner,2D Wertli equipment, 3, 8, 55-57 ancillary equipment, 55 data recording, 57 drive concept - backlash free, 56 history, 3, 8, 8D melt transfer, 56 melting furnaces, 55, 56 strip cooler design, 56D strip-rod and tube, 55, 56 Withdrawal systems AC servo-drive, 23 cam indexing, 23, 24 DC drive, 23, 56 pneumatic slide, 24 withdrawal sequence, 22G, 23T
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