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| موضوع: كتاب World Class Quality الجمعة 24 سبتمبر 2021, 9:58 pm | |
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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب World Class Quality SECOND EDITION Using Design of Experiments to Make It Happen Keki R. Bhote, Adi K. Bhote
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xiii Foreword by Bob Galvin xvii Preface to the Second Edition xix Acknowledgments xxiii Part I Introduction 1. The Need for and Objectives and Benefits of Design of Experiments 3 2. Fads, Potions, Nostrums of the Quality Movement in the Last 50 Years 10 3. A Powerful Tool Kit for the 21st Century 19 Part II Preamble to the Design of Experiments 4. The Measurement of Process Capability 51 5. Variation: An Industrial Epidemic 65 6. The Three Approaches to DOE: Classical, Taguchi, and Shainin 73 7. A Synopsis of the 10 Powerful DOE Tools 86 Part III ‘‘Talking to the Parts’’—A Set of Clue-Generating Tools 8. The Multi-Vari Analysis: Homing In on the Red X 107 vvi Contents 9. The Concentration Chart: Pinpointing Locations of Repetitive Problems 147 10. Components Search: Simple, Smooth Swapping 157 11. Paired Comparisons: An Elegant, Versatile Tool 194 12. Product/Process Search: Pinpointing Process Variables 217 Part IV Formal Design of Experiments Techniques to Characterize a Product/Process 13. Variables Search: The Rolls Royce in the Search for the Red X 233 14. The Full Factorial: Purest Technique for Separating and Quantifying Each Interaction Effect 282 15. B versus C: An Excellent Validation Technique 309 Part V DOE Optimization 16. Scatter Plots to Achieve Realistic Specifications and Tolerances 335 17. Response Surface Methodology (RSM): To Optimize Interactions 355 Part VI The Transition From DOE to SPC: Vital Disciplines 18. Positrol: Freezing Process Gains 369 19. Process Certification: Eliminating Peripheral Causes of Poor Quality 378 Part VII Statistical Process Control: For Monitoring Quality 20. Control Charts: A Technique Whose Time Has Gone 393 21. Pre-Control: A Technique Whose Time Has Come 399Contents vii Part VIII Linkage of DOE to Reliability 22. Multiple Environment Over Stress Tests: As Effective for Reliability as DOE Is for Quality 421 Part IX A Logical Sequence in the Use of DOE Tools 23. Case Studies in Sequential DOE Tools to Solve Chronic Problems 445 Part X From Classroom Instruction to True Learning on the Job 24. Learning by Doing 467 References 479 Index 4 Contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xiii Foreword by Bob Galvin xvii Preface to the Second Edition xix Acknowledgments xxiii Part I Introduction 1. The Need for and Objectives and Benefits of Design of Experiments 3 2. Fads, Potions, Nostrums of the Quality Movement in the Last 50 Years 10 3. A Powerful Tool Kit for the 21st Century 19 Part II Preamble to the Design of Experiments 4. The Measurement of Process Capability 51 5. Variation: An Industrial Epidemic 65 6. The Three Approaches to DOE: Classical, Taguchi, and Shainin 73 7. A Synopsis of the 10 Powerful DOE Tools 86 Part III ‘‘Talking to the Parts’’—A Set of Clue-Generating Tools 8. The Multi-Vari Analysis: Homing In on the Red X 107 vvi Contents 9. The Concentration Chart: Pinpointing Locations of Repetitive Problems 147 10. Components Search: Simple, Smooth Swapping 157 11. Paired Comparisons: An Elegant, Versatile Tool 194 12. Product/Process Search: Pinpointing Process Variables 217 Part IV Formal Design of Experiments Techniques to Characterize a Product/Process 13. Variables Search: The Rolls Royce in the Search for the Red X 233 14. The Full Factorial: Purest Technique for Separating and Quantifying Each Interaction Effect 282 15. B versus C: An Excellent Validation Technique 309 Part V DOE Optimization 16. Scatter Plots to Achieve Realistic Specifications and Tolerances 335 17. Response Surface Methodology (RSM): To Optimize Interactions 355 Part VI The Transition From DOE to SPC: Vital Disciplines 18. Positrol: Freezing Process Gains 369 19. Process Certification: Eliminating Peripheral Causes of Poor Quality 378 Part VII Statistical Process Control: For Monitoring Quality 20. Control Charts: A Technique Whose Time Has Gone 393 21. Pre-Control: A Technique Whose Time Has Come 399Contents vii Part VIII Linkage of DOE to Reliability 22. Multiple Environment Over Stress Tests: As Effective for Reliability as DOE Is for Quality 421 Part IX A Logical Sequence in the Use of DOE Tools 23. Case Studies in Sequential DOE Tools to Solve Chronic Problems 445 Part X From Classroom Instruction to True Learning on the Job 24. Learning by Doing 467 References 479 Index acceptable quality level (AQL), 10 accuracy, of measurement, 97–102 affinity diagram, 26 alpha () risk, 313, 315, 404 analysis of variance (ANOVA), 83 arrow diagram, 27 attributes, conversion from, 102 B versus C: 309–22; alpha () risk, 313, 315; applications in administrative services, 329; beta () risk, 313–17; confidence, risk, and end-count, 317; importance of validation, 309; increasing sample sizes to reduce B and C separation, 320; more than two alternatives, 323; opinion surveys, 330; overlap and no overlap rules, 316; stress test to failure, 327; when C is worse than B, 323 baby sigma practices, 17 balance, in experimentation, 283 ball park stage, 161 benchmarking, 34–36 beta () risk, 313, 315, 317, 406 Bhote, Keki, 14, 477, 478 Big Q (Bhote) Quality System, 14 brainstorming, 4, 16, 22 business excellence, 17 business process engineering, 40 capability, process, 51–64, 401 case studies: appliance servicer, 278; automotive styling, 330; bubbles in glass, 223; bushing, 394; car com- 481 pany’s ice cream fiasco, 178–82; contact lens, 266; cracked epoxy, 260, 317; customer loyalty/satisfaction/profit, 351; customer services at hotel, 141; dairy farm bacteria levels, 211; Dendermonde, Belgium, 475–76; die casting, 376; disc brake, 309; dome tweeter sensitivity, 457–64; edge defects in contact lenses, 336; electric razor, 103; foam leaks in refrigerator door, 148; Ford versus Mazda, 52; four megabit dynamic RAM, 203; F-16 fighter jet, 53; gear train motor, 327; hospital billing errors, 140; hourmeter, 165; ignition amplifier, 343; instrument intermittency, 274; lettuce bag leakage, 220; maximizing Schottky diode yields, 357; micro-motor noise, 199; moire effect minimization, 295; Motorola six sigma, 76–79; Nippon Telegraph & Telephone (NTT), 53; non-firing burner, 177; operator performance differences, 189; pick and place machine, 273; plastic injection molding machine, 373; press brake, 250, 320; radio ‘‘no trouble found,’’ 126; refrigerator door gaps, 187; rotor shaft, 121; SCAP metallization, 384; sensor capacitance, 396; shorted horizontal output transistor, 154; software applications, 271; spring torque482 Index difference, 189; ‘‘tombstone’’ defects, 139, 265; travel motor, 273; university recruitment drive, 155; wave solder defects, 148, 288, 447–57 cause and effect diagrams: CEDAC, 23, 24; futility, 109, 110; Ishikawa, 109, 110 circuit analysis, 3 classical DOE, 70, 73–85, 235 combination formula, 197, 312 commodity teams, 42 comparison of three DOE approaches, 73–85 Components Search: 157–93; applications in administrative work, 196; applications in processes/lines, 188; applications when disassembly/re-assembly not repeatable, 186; bypassing the Multi-Vari, 158; capping run, 162, 164; decision limits, 167; determining correct specifications, 176; factorial analysis, 173; four stages of, 161; graphical plots, 167; main and interaction effects, 171; prerequisites, 162; procedure in 12 steps, 163–64; quiz: ‘‘find the Red X ball,’’ 190–92 computer simulation: 3, 5, 69, 73; Monte Carlo, 70, 73 Concentration Chart: 147–56; applications in administrative work, 154–55; construction of, 147–48; ‘‘measles’’ chart, 147 confounding, 235–36 control charts: disadvantages vis-a`-vis Pre-Control, 412, 413; history, 393; slip-shod practices, 397–98; weaknesses, 393–97 correlation, 351–53 cost of poor quality, 7, 54, 76 cost reduction, 7, 8, 78 C p, Cpk: 5, 7, 12, 54–64; calculations, formulas, 54–59; correction factor, K, 57; pitfalls to avoid, 59–60; relationship between Cp, ppm, and sigma, 56 culture, problem solving: 467–78; conversion of the design engineer, 472; energizing, 468; learning by doing, 467–75; line worker contribution, 475; managing complex change, 468; practice, practice, practice, 467; skunk works, 475; top management commitment, 469 customer: internal customer, 39, 40; loyalty/satisfaction, 7, 9, 351–53; mass customization, 32; Next Operation as Customer, 3, 5, 36, 39, 40; quality function deployment, 29, 32 cycle-time reduction: 6–9, 39–46; flow charting, 40, 42; MRP II, 45, 46; push-pull, 45 data collection/analysis, 20 decision limits, 167 Deming, Dr. W. Edwards, 65, 380, 476, 477 design engineering: conversion of, 472, 473; DOE in design, 233–81, 335–54; importance of DOE to, 7, 8; ‘‘parts are smarter than the engineers,’’ 7, 8; product/process characterization, 5, 233–81; product/ process optimization, 5, 335–54; traditional approach to problem solving, 28 Design of Experiments (DOE): benefits, 7–9; block diagram, 87; case studies, see case studies; classical DOE, 74–85; clue generation techniques, 105–6; comparison of three DOE approaches, 73–85; Components Search, see Components Search; continuum of linked tools, 445–64; C p, Cpk, see Cp, Cpk; Evolutionary Operation (EVOP), 351–61; fraction factorials: weaknesses, 234–40; Full Factorials, see Full Factorial; generic problem-solving framework, 89; Green Y, 93; instrumentation accuracy, 109–13; logical sequence in DOE, 445–64;Index 483 Multi-Vari analysis, see Multi-Vari analysis; need for, 3–5; objectives, 6, 7; Paired Comparisons, see Paired Comparisons; Pale Pink X, 93; Pink X, 93; Positrol, see Positrol; problem-solving roadmap, 95; Process Certification, see Process Certification; product/process characterization, 3, 5, 33, 317, 318; product/process optimization, 3, 5, 33, 429; Product/Process Search, see Product/Process Search; randomization, 81, 284; Red X, 93; replication, 283; Response Surface Methodology, see Response Surface Methodology; root cause identification, 445; simplex, 361–63; Taguchi DOE, see Taguchi DOE; ten DOE tools summary, 90–92; three approaches to DOE, 74–85; Variables Search, see Variables Search; workshop exercises, see workshop exercises; workshops in DOE, 470–72 destruct limits, 429 early supplier involvement (ESI), 42 8-D, see under Ford elimination stage, 161 employees: brain fertility, 474; error cause removal, 379; human shortcomings, 380, 383; involvement, 28, 77; joy in the workplace, 476, 477; Kaizen, 28; morale, 6, 8, 9, 473–77; Quality Circles, 28; skunk works, 475; Total Customer Satisfaction competition, 78 end-counts, 196, 201 environmental neglect, 379, 382 equipment inattention, 379, 382 error cause removal (ECR), 379 errors: type I and II, 313 European Quality Award, 11, 12, 15 Evolutionary Operation (EVOP), 351–61 excellence, business, 14, 17 factorial analysis, 173, 246 factory overall efficiency (FOE), 33 failure mode effects analysis, 5, 6, 422 Fisher, Sir Ronald, 74 flow chart, 40 Ford: 25, 52–53, 74, 88; 8-D, 25, 74, 88; versus Mazda, 52; fraction factorials: weaknesses, 234–40 frequency distributions, 21 Full Factorial: 234, 287–308; balance, 283; fraction factorials: weaknesses, 234–40; limitations, 282; methodology, 287; objectives, 283; principles, 283; randomization, 81, 284; replication, 287 fundamental weaknesses of classical and Taguchi DOE, 78–85 Galvin, Robert W., 76, 77, 468 glass wall management, 381 good manufacturing practices, 379, 381 graphics, 20 Green Y, 93 Highly Accelerated Life Tests (HALT), 427–30, 437–39 Highly Accelerated Stress Screens (HASS), 430, 437–39 histograms, 21 House of Quality, 30, 31 improvement, quality, 5, 7, 8, 9 improvement, reliability, 5, 7 Institute of Environmental Science guidelines, 422 interaction effects, 393–98 internal customer, 39, 40 ISO-9000, 11, 381 Japanese, 19, 28 Japanese seven management tools, 19, 25–27 Juran, Dr. Joseph M., 65, 89 Kaizen, 19, 381 Kepner-Tragoe, 4, 74, 78484 Index leadership, of Bob Galvin, 76, 77, 468 learning by doing, 467–77 Likert scale, 102–4, 114 log, Positrol, 370 logical sequence of DOE tools, 443–64 main effects, 393–98 Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, 11, 15 management: commitment and involvement, 469–72; comparison of three quality systems, 15–18; poor management, 65, 66, 379–81; production management, 473, 474; quality management, 473; seven tools of Japanese management, 19, 25–27, 70 manufacturing management: 379–82, 473, 474; actions required, 473, 474; poor manufacturing practices, 65– 68, 379–82 mass customization, 32 matrix diagram, 27 Mazda versus Ford, 52 ‘‘measles’’ chart, 147 measurement: accuracy check list, 101, 116–18; bias, precision, discrimination, 98; Likert scale, 102–4 measurement accuracy, 97–102 Motorola: cost of poor quality, 76; Galvin, Bob, 76–77; quality improvement 10:1 to 1,000:1, 76–78; six sigma, 12, 75–78 Multiple Environment Over Stress Test (MEOST): HALT/HASS versus MEOST, 437–39; history, objectives, benefits, 430–33; maximum practical over stress limit, 430; methodology, a roadmap, 433–34; seven stages, 434–38; tie-in with DOE, 438, 440 multiple regression analysis, 351 Multi-Vari analysis: 107–46; applications in administrative work, 140; card trick analogy, 107–9; constructing a Multi-Vari chart, 119–21; designing/conducting a Multi-Vari study, 112–14; family tree, 113–16; principles, 107–9; sample sizes and frequency, 114–16; three families of variation, 111–12 Next Operation As Customer (NOAC), 39, 40 nonparametric experiments, 309–22 no overlap technique, 316 null hypothesis, 311 numeric scale, converting attributes to, 102–4 operator certification, 381 operator errors, 71 optimization of products/processes, 335–54 orthogonal array, 79, 234 out-of-box thinking, 40 overlap technique, 316 Paired Comparisons: 194–216; applications in administrative services, 210; combination formulas, 197, 312; methodology: A and B, 195; Tukey test, 196, 207 Pale Pink X, 89, 93 Pareto’s law/principle, 22, 89, 90, 94 Peterson, Don, 53 Pink X, 89, 93 Plan, do, check, act (PDCA), 20 positional variation, 111 Positrol: 89, 369–77; chart, 370; concept, 369; plan, 369 Pre-Control: 6, 399–418; advantages over control charts, 410; alpha () risk, 404; beta () risk, 406; charting, 408; discovery, 399; mechanics, 400; modifications, 403; opposition to, 409; theory, 404 problem solving: chronic, 6; culture, 468–469; energizing a culture for, 468; engineering approach, 28; generic process for, 97; prevention, 6, 7; roadmap, 95; three approaches to, 73–85; worker involvement, 28Index 485 process capability, 51–64, 402 Process Certification: 378–90; audits, 383; environmental neglect, 382; error cause removal (ECR), 381; good manufacturing practices violation, 381; methodology, 383; Murphy’s law, 378; operator certification, 381; peripheral causes of poor quality, 378–80; plant/equipment inattention, 382; scrubs, 383 process mapping, 40 productivity, 6 product/process characterization, 3, 5, 33, 317, 318 product/process optimization, 3, 5, 33, 429 Product/Process Search: 217–30; methodology, 218; principles, 217; when individual process parameters cannot be measured, 219 profitability, 6, 7, 8 quality: acceptable quality level (AQL), 10; ‘‘baby’’ six sigma system, 13, 17; big Q (Bhote) quality system, 14; cost of poor quality, 7, 54, 76; fads, 10–15; Ford 8-D, 25, 74, 88; House of Quality, 30, 31; improvement, 5, 7–9; ISO-9000, 11, 15; parts per billion (ppb) defects, 6; parts per million (ppm) defects, 6; poor systems and tools, 70; Quality Circles, 28; quality function deployment, 29–32; quality management, 473; QS-9000, 12, 15; relationship: Cp, sigma, and defect levels, 56; sampling plans, 10; six sigma systems, 12, 13, 16, 17; systems, comparisons of three, 17; Total Quality Management (TQM), 12, 13, 17; ultimate six sigma, 13, 17; yields, 6; zero defects movement, 10, 18 Random Evolutionary Operation (REVOP), 363 randomization, 81, 284 rank order, 102, 196 Rath and Strong, 399 R chart, 394–96 realistic tolerances, 335–54 Red X, 89, 93 reliability: failure mode effects analysis (FMEA), 5, 6, 422; fault tree analyses (FTA), 5; Highly Accelerated Life Tests (HALT), 427–30; importance of, 8, 9, 421; mass life testing, 3, 422; Miner’s equation, 424; Multiple Environment Over Stress Test (MEOST), see MEOST; relationship of failure to stress, 424; reliability prediction studies, 5, 422; revolutionary test principles, 423–27; shortcomings in traditional reliability, 421; thermal cycling, 425; versus quality, 421; vibration, 425–27 Response Surface Methodology (RSM): 355–66; approaches, 355; Evolutionary Operation (EVOP), 356–61; objectives, 355; Random Evolutionary Operation (REVOP), 363; simplex, 361–63 Scatter Plots: 335–54; administrative applications, 350; correlations, 339; methodology, 337; multiple regression analysis, 351; objective, 335; realistic specifications/tolerances, 335 Shainin, Dorian, 75 Shainin DOE, strengths, 74–85 Shewhart, Walter, 393 sigma, 56 simplex, 361–63 six sigma systems, 12, 13, 16, 17 space reduction, 7, 8 specifications: determining correct, 176; determining realistic, 335–54; poor component, 68–70; poor product, 68–70; target values, 52, 53; worst case tolerances, 4 spider chart, 8, 9 statistical process control (SPC): 6, 74,486 Index 78, 391–418; control charts, 393–98; Pre-Control, 399–418; transition to, 391–418; stress test to failure, 95, 438–41 supply management: benefits, 7; commodity teams, 42; early supplier involvement (ESI), 42; importance of, 7–9; poor suppliers, 71–73 support services, 39, 40 table, of random numbers, 286 Taguchi, Dr. Genichi, 75 Taguchi DOE: 70, 75, 297, 298; comparisons with classical and Shainin DOE, 74–85; fundamental weaknesses, 78–85; orthogonal array, 79, 234 tally sheets, 21 thermal cycling, 425 tolerances: build-up, of, 54; geometric, 4; important/unimportant parameters, 3; loose/tight, 40; realistic, 4, 438–41; worst case, 4 tools: awareness, implementation, 47; benchmarking, 35–36; brainstorming, 4, 16, 22; cause and effect diagrams, 23, 109, 110; CEDAC, 24; check sheets, 21; classical DOE, 70, 73–85, 235; control charts, see control charts; cycle-time reduction, 45–46; data collection/analysis, 20; Design of Experiments (DOE), see Design of Experiments; Ford 8- D, 25, 74, 78, 88; graphs/charts, 20; histograms/frequency distributions, 21; interrelationship diagram, 26; Kepner-Tragoe, 4, 78; matrix diagram, 27; Multiple Environment Over Stress Test (MEOST), see MEOST; Next Operation As Customer (NOAC), see NOAC; Pareto charts, 22, 89, 92, 94; plan, do, check, act (PDCA), 20; Poka-Yoke, 36–38; Pre-Control, see Pre-Control; process decision program chart, 27; quality function deployment, 29–32; seven management tools, 19, 25–27, 70; seven tools of Q.C., 4, 19–24, 70; Shainin DOE, 74–85; statistical process control (SPC), see SPC; supply management, see supply management; Taguchi DOE, 70–75, 297, 298; tally sheets, 21; tool kit for the 21st century, 28–47; Total Productive Maintenance, 7, 8, 9, 32–34; transition from DOE to SPC, 95, 369–90; tree diagram, 27; value engineering, total, 42–44 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM), 7, 8, 9, 32–34 total quality management, 12–15 Tukey test, 196, 207 type I and II errors, 313 ultimate six sigma, 13–14 validation, 309 value engineering, 42–44 variation: evil, 48; industrial epidemic, 65–72; poor management of, 65–68; poor manufacturing practices, 70; poor specifications, 68–70; poor suppliers, 71; target value, 50; temporal, 112 Variables Search: 233–81; advantages over fraction factorials, 9, 234–40, 283; analogy with medical/pharmaceutical work, 276; binary search, 240; capping run, 246; common mistakes, 254; decision limits, 245; factorial analysis, 246; four stages, 241; graphical plots, 254; interaction effects, 247; methodology, 241; objectives, 239; product/ process characterization, 248; software applications, 271; test of significance, 244; Variable Search plus Paired Comparisons, a derivative DOE technique, 271 vibration tests, 425–27 white-collar quality, cost, cycle time, 35, 39, 40Index 487 workers, see employees workshop exercises: belt passivator, 133; bushing, 414; car company ice cream fiasco, 178; choice between four suppliers, 324; CNC lathe, 374; contact lens, 201; digital circuit, 350; drilling operation, 298; engine control module, 256; infrared soldering, 345; light emitting diodes (LED), 63; memory chips, 386; oscillator time delay, 183; outof-square grills, 204; paint defects on washing machine tub, 151; paint yield optimization, 293; plastic injection molding machine, 226; porcelain paint process, 385; press brake, 60; printed circuit board soldering, 374; Red X ball nos. 1 and 2, 190; screen print, 261; semiconductor wafer, 116; sensor capacitance, 415; shaft distortion after heat treat, 153; spot welding, 268; tile adhesion, 129; walking machine, 187; wire bond strength, 319 X bar charts, 394–96 zero defects movement, 10–11, 18
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