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| موضوع: كتاب A Practical Guide to Welding Solutions الخميس 04 فبراير 2021, 2:42 am | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب A Practical Guide to Welding Solutions Overcoming Technical and Material-Specific Issues Robert W. Messler, Jr.
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents Preface xi 1 Introduction 1 Further Reading 6 2 Categorization of Welding and Weld Problems 7 2.1 What Is Welding? 7 2.2 Microstructural Zones of Welds 13 2.3 Origin of Problems in Welding and Welds 19 2.4 How Problems Can Be Logically Categorized? 20 References 21 Further Reading 21 Part I Manifestation of Problems with Welds and Weldments 23 3 Problems with Joint Setup and Weld Joints 25 3.1 Joint Efficiency 25 3.2 Weld Joint Types and Weld Configurations 26 3.3 Joint Setup Problems 31 3.4 Problems with Weld Profile 35 3.5 Troubleshooting Guide 42 References 45 Further Reading 45 4 Shape Distortion, Dimensional Shrinkage, and Geometric Instability 47 4.1 Thermal Versus Mechanical Stresses in a Structure 47 4.2 Residual Stresses Versus Distortion 48 4.3 Origin and Effect of Volumetric Shrinkage 48 4.4 Origin and Effect of Thermal Contraction 52 4.5 Problems from Nonuniform Thermal Contraction and CTE Mismatches 57vi Contents 4.6 Problems from Distortion and from Residual Stresses 60 4.7 Distortion Control and Residual Stress Reduction 60 4.8 Troubleshooting Guide 65 References 65 Further Reading 66 5 Porosity 67 5.1 The Most Common Problem in Welds 67 5.2 Types of Weld Porosity 70 5.3 Gases in Molten Weld Metal 73 5.4 The Many Possible Causes of Porosity in Welds 79 5.5 Attempting to Minimize Porosity Formation in Fusion Welds 84 5.6 Troubleshooting Porosity Problems in Welds 85 References 87 Further Reading 87 6 Cracks 89 6.1 The Most Dreaded Defect in Welds 89 6.2 Classification of Cracking and Cracks in Welds and Welding 90 6.3 Hot Cracking and Cracks 91 6.4 Cold Cracking and Cracks 98 6.5 Other Weld-Related Cracking and Cracks 101 6.6 Crack-Prone Metals and Alloys 102 6.7 Troubleshooting Cracking Problems in Welds 105 References 106 Further Reading 107 7 Nonmetallic and Metallic Inclusions 109 7.1 Solid Versus Gas Inclusions 109 7.2 Nonmetallic Inclusions in Welds 110 7.3 Metallic Inclusions in Welds 114 7.4 Troubleshooting Problems with Inclusions in Welds 115 References 116 Further Reading 116 8 Weld Appearance 117 8.1 Can You Judge a Book by Its Cover? Is Beauty Only Skin Deep? 117 8.2 Weld Crown Bead Faults 118 8.3 Weld Root Bead Faults 121 8.4 Fillet Weld Faults 123 8.5 Reading Weld Ripple Marks 124 8.6 Weld Spatter 126 8.7 Arc Strikes 128 8.8 Weld Heat Tint 129 8.9 Troubleshooting Weld Appearance Problems 132 References 133 Further Reading 134Contents vii Part II Location of Problems in Welds 135 9 Fusion Zone of Fusion Welds 137 9.1 A Refresher on Microstructural Zones in and Around Welds 137 9.2 Gas Porosity in the Fusion Zone of Welds 141 9.3 Cracking in the Fusion Zone of Welds 143 9.4 Inclusions in the Fusion Zone of Welds 151 9.5 Macrosegregation in the Fusion Zone of Welds 152 9.6 Troubleshooting Problems in the Fusion Zone of Welds 153 References 155 Further Reading 156 10 Partially Melted Zone of Fusion Welds 157 10.1 Origin and Location of the PMZ in Fusion Welds 157 10.2 Conventional Hot Cracking in the PMZ 161 10.3 Constitutional Liquation Cracking in the PMZ 161 10.4 Cold Cracking in the PMZ 164 10.5 Overcoming Cracking Problems in the PMZ 166 10.6 Troubleshooting Problems in the PMZ 167 References 167 Further Reading 168 11 Heat-Affected Zone of Fusion Welds 169 11.1 Origin and Location of the HAZ for Fusion Welds 169 11.2 Manifestation of Problems in the HAZ of Fusion Welds 170 11.3 Precipitation-Hardening Alloy HAZ Problems 171 11.4 Sensitization in the HAZ of Austenitic Stainless Steels 176 11.5 Transformation-Hardening Steel HAZ Problems 179 11.6 Reheat Cracking 183 11.7 Troubleshooting Problems in the HAZ of Fusion Welds 186 References 187 Further Reading 188 12 Unaffected Base Metal Cracking Associated with Welding 189 12.1 Weld-Related Problems in the Unaffected Base Metal 189 12.2 Lamellar Tearing in Thick Steel Weldments 189 12.3 Corrosion Cracking Caused by Fusion Welding 192 12.4 Fatigue Cracking Outside Fusion Welds 195 12.5 Troubleshooting Weld-Related Problems in the Unaffected Base Metal 199 References 200 Further Reading 201 13 Discontinuities in Multi-pass Welds 203 13.1 Needs for Multi-pass Welding and Welds 203 13.2 Various Functions of Multi-pass Welding and Welds 205viii Contents 13.3 Defects Found in Multi-pass Welds 207 13.4 Composition Adjustment with Multi-pass Welding 210 13.5 Property Alteration with Multi-pass Welding 213 13.6 Troubleshooting Problems in Multi-pass Welding and Welds 216 References 217 Further Reading 217 14 Problems with Non-fusion Welding and Non-fusion Welds 219 14.1 Non-fusion Welding Processes Versus Fusion Welding Processes 219 14.2 Overview of Non-fusion Processes 220 14.2.1 Pressure Welding Processes 222 14.2.2 Friction Welding Processes 222 14.2.3 Diffusion Welding Processes 222 14.2.4 Solid-State Deposition Welding 223 14.3 Problems with Non-fusion Welds and Non-fusion Welding Processes 223 14.4 Inspection and Repair Challenges with Non-fusion Welds 229 14.5 Troubleshooting Problems with Non-fusion Welds 230 References 230 Further Reading 231 Part III Material-Specific Weld-Related Problems 233 15 Embrittlement of Carbon and Low- and Medium-alloy Steels 235 15.1 The Importance of Steel 235 15.2 Four Causes of Embrittlement in Carbon and Low- and Medium-alloy Steels 238 15.3 Hydrogen Embrittlement: A Misnomer in Steels 239 15.4 Secondary Hardening in Steels 240 15.5 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition in Steels 241 15.6 Compromise of Fatigue and Impact Behavior by Residual Stresses in Steels 243 15.7 Troubleshooting Problems from Embrittlement of Steels by Welding 244 References 245 Further Reading 245 16 Sensitization or Weld Decay and Knife-line Attack in Stainless Steels 247 16.1 A Primer on the Metallurgy of Stainless Steels 247 16.2 Sensitization of Austenitic Stainless Steels by Welding 249 16.3 Sensitization of Other Grades of Stainless Steel 252Contents ix 16.4 Knife-line Attack in Stabilized Austenitic Stainless Steels 252 16.5 Troubleshooting Problems from Sensitization or Knife-line Attack 254 References 255 Further Reading 255 17 Stress Relief Cracking of Precipitation-Hardening Alloys 257 17.1 Different Names, Same Phenomenon 257 17.2 Stress Relief Cracking in Ferritic Alloy Steels 260 17.3 Stress Relaxation Cracking in Stainless Steels 265 17.4 Strain-age Cracking in Ni-Based Superalloys 267 17.5 Troubleshooting Problems from Stress Relief or Strain-age Cracking 270 References 271 Further Reading 271 18 Loss of Properties in Cold-Worked Metals and Alloys 273 18.1 Cold Work, Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 273 18.2 Cold-Worked Metals and Alloys in Engineering 278 18.3 Avoiding or Recovering Properties Loss from Fusion Welding 281 18.4 The Worked Zone in Pressure-Welded Metals and Alloys 284 18.5 Troubleshooting Welding Problems in Cold-Worked Metals and Alloys 285 References 285 Further Reading 286 19 Embrittlement with High-chromium Contents 287 19.1 Phase Formation and Structure 287 19.2 Adverse Effects of σ-Phase 291 19.3 Susceptible Alloys 291 19.4 Guidelines for Avoiding or Resolving Problems from σ-Phase 293 19.5 Troubleshooting Problems with σ-Phase Associated with Welding 294 References 295 Further Reading 295 20 Weld Dilution and Chemical Inhomogeneity 297 20.1 The Designer’s Druthers 297 20.2 Chemical Inhomogeneity in Welds 300 20.3 Weld Dilution 302 20.4 The Unmixed Zone in the Weld Metal 304 20.5 Impurities in the Weld Metal 307 20.6 Troubleshooting Problems from Weld Dilution and Chemical Inhomogeneity 307 References 308 Further Reading 308x Contents 21 Dissimilar Metal and Alloy Welding 309 21.1 Joining Dissimilar Materials 309 21.2 The Need for Welding Dissimilar Metals and Alloys 311 21.3 Chemical Incompatibility 311 21.4 Mechanical Incompatibility 315 21.5 Thermal Incompatibility 315 21.6 Troubleshooting Problems with Dissimilar Metal and Alloy Welding 318 References 318 Further Reading 319 Closing Thoughts 321 Index 323 323 Index a Abnormal grain growth 18 Acceptable welds/good welds 3, 19, 117, 120, 123–124 Adhesive bonding 26 Age-hardening alloys see Precipitation-hardening alloys Allotropic transformations 138 Alloying (defined) 15 Alpha case (in titanium alloys) 106 Aluminum alloy cracking (due to welding) 103, 147 Angular distortion/bowing 51 Angular misalignment see Joint set-up problems Annealing (defined) 276 Appearance see Weld appearance Arc blow 72 Arc strike(s) 128, 129 Atomic bonding covalent bonding 9, 10 dipole bonding (see Secondary bonding) fluctuating dipole bonding (see Secondary bonding) induced dipole bonding (see Secondary bonding) ionic bonding 9, 10 metallic bonding 9, 10 mixed bonding 10 permanent dipole bonding (see Secondary bonding) primary bonding 9, 10 secondary bonding 9, 10 van der Waals bonding 9, 10 Austenitic stainless steel see Stainless steels Autogenous welding (defined) 148, 211, 302 b Back-up bars, strips or tape (for welding) 34 Backward problem-solving approach 5 Bad welds see Unacceptable welds (bad welds) Baking welding electrodes 84 Banded microstructure (in steels) 191 Base metal(s)/base material(s) 25 Beachmarks see Fatigue fracture features Bead-on-plate (BOP) welds 55 Bead-shape-induced cracking see Centerline or longitudinal cracks Bevel angle 31 Blind welds (partial-penetration welds) see Weld joint configurations Bowing see Angular distortion/bowing Brazing 10, 169, 311 Buffer layers 203, 315 Build-up layers see Multi-pass /Multiple-pass welding or welds Burn-through (defect) 34, 38, 121 Buttering (butter layers) 191 see also Multi-pass/Multiple-pass welding or welds c Carbon equivalent (Ceq) 100, 180–182 Carbon steels see Steels A Practical Guide to Welding Solutions: Overcoming Technical and Material-Specific Issues, First Edition. Robert W. Messler, Jr. 2019 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2019 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.324 Index Casting 14 Categorization of problems (in welding/welds) 7, 20 Causes of porosity in welds air/atmosphere contamination 82 contamination by defective equipment 82 contamination from base metal 83 contamination by improper welding procedure 82 contamination of joint elements 80–81 hydrocarbon contamination 81 tarnish layers 80–81 water contamination 81 zinc galvanize 81 Centerline or longitudinal cracks see Hot cracks/hot cracking Ceramic welding 8 CGHAZ/FGHAZ/ICHAZ 184–185, 262, 265 Chemical compatibility/incompatibility 311–312 Cladding (by welding) see Multi-pass/Multiple-pass welding or welds; Welding (defined) Classification (of welding processes) 12 Close-packed crystal structure (of metals) 50 Coalescence (defined) 9 Co-based superalloys 267 Cold cracks/cold cracking 150 cross cracking or check cracking 92, 95–96 hydrogen cracking (see Hydrogen-assisted/induced cracking) root cracks/cracking 92, 98 toe cracks/cracking 92, 98 transverse cracks/cracking 92 underbead cracks/cracking 92, 98 Cold work/cold working 273–276 Cold-worked 274 Cold worked metals and alloys 278–281 effect of welding on 282 weld HAZ in 282 welding of 283–284 Codes (welding codes) 69, 89 Configuration of welds see Weld joint configurations Consistency (defined) 297–298 Constitutional liquation cracking see Hot cracks/hot cracking Constitutional supercooling 305 Constitution diagrams see DeLong (constitution) diagram, Schaeffler (constitution) diagram, WRC diagram Continuity (for creating a weld) see Metallic (or material) continuity Convection (in weld pools) see Weld pool convection (forces and effects) Convection forces (in welds) 153 Cooling curves (solidification) 157 Copper alloy cracking (due to welding) 103–104 Corrosion cracks/cracking (due to welding) 102, 192 Crack(s) (defined) 89, 143–144 cold cracks 91, 98, 150 (see also Cold cracks/cold cracking) corrosion cracks 91 effect of cracks 90 fatigue cracks 91, 102 (see also Fatigue cracks/fatigue cracking) hot cracks 91, 143–146 (see also Hot cracks/hot cracking) Crater cracks see Hot cracks/hot cracking Crater pipe (discontinuity) 68–69 Cr-depleted zone (or Cr denuded zone) 249–250 Creep 258–259 Creep limit 260 Creep-resistant PH alloys 258 Crown bead see Weld crown bead/weld bead crownIndex 325 CTE (effect of temperature) 58 CTE mismatch 59, 315, 317 CTEs of metals and alloys 316 Cushion layers see Multi-pass/ Multiple-pass welding or welds d Decohesion (defined) 260 Defects (in welds) see Discontinuities Deformation-induced martensite 247 Deformation processing 14 Degree of dilution 303 Delamination (defect) 191, 192 Delayed cracking see Hydrogen-assisted or induced cracking DeLong (constitution) diagram 83, 106 Diffusion welding see Non-fusion welding Digging arcs 118 Dilution (in fusion welds) 150, 210, 212, 302, 304, 312 Dimensional shrinkage (in welding) 36 thermal contraction 34–35 volumetric shrinkage 34 Discontinuities 35–36 see also Joint discontinuities Dislocations 15, 273–274 edge dislocations 16 mixed dislocations 16 screw dislocations 16 Dissimilar materials 309–310 Dissimilar metal and alloy welding 311 Distortion (warpage) 29, 48, 57–58, 60, 61 Ductile-to-brittle transition and DBTT 241–242 Dynamic recrystallization (during hot working) 273 e Effective liquidus temperature 157 Effective solidus temperature 157 Effects of gases in metals 76 Effects of porosity see Porosity Elastic limit(defined) 274 Embrittling phases 287 Environmentally-assisted cracking see Hydrogen-assisted or induced cracking f Failure to fit (defined) 19 Failure to function (defined) 20 Fatigue cracks/cracking (due to welding) 102, 196 Fatigue cracks/fatigue cracking 185 Fatigue failure(s) 195–196 Fatigue fracture features beachmarks 197 striations 196, 198 terminal overload area 197 thumbnails origins 197 Faying surfaces (defined) 221 Fe-Cr phase diagram 248, 288 Fe-Fe 3C phase diagram 129 Ferritic alloy steels 260–261 Filler metal(s) (defined) 302 see also matching/matched filters, overmatching or overmatch filter, undermatched or undermatching filter Fillet weld face/weld face 118 Fillet welds 123 Fisheyes (in hydrogen cracking) 99 Fixturing (weldments) 61 Flame-straightening (heat straightening) 61–62 Flux (defined) 110, 111 Flux inclusions see Solid inclusions Foreign debris or inclusions see Solid inclusions Forging laps 191 Fracture mechanics 70 Fracture toughness 89 Freezing range (of alloys) 50, 157 Friction stir welding (FSW) 224–225 excess flash 226–228 heat-affected zone (HAZ) 225 kissing bonds 226–228 lazy-S defect 226–228 nugget collapse 226–228326 Index Friction stir welding (FSW) (contd.) oxide-induced defects 226–228 ribbon flask 226–228 stir zone 225 surface galling 226–228 thermomechanically-affected zone (TMAZ) 225 tunnels (defects) 226–227 unaffected zone 225 Friction welding, see Non-fusion welding Full-penetration welds see Weld joint configurations Fusing (glass welding) 8 Fusion welding 17 g Gamma loop/????-loop see Fe-Cr phase diagram Gases found in various welding processes 79, 80 Gas impurities see Impurities (in welds) Gas inclusions/gas porosity (in welds) 109 Gas(es) in molten weld metal73-76–79 141–142 Germination see Abnormal grain growth Ghost boundaries (in the PMZ) 164 Glass welding see Fusing Good welds see Acceptable welds/good welds Grain growth (after cold work and recrystallization) 273 Growth structure in welds (control of) 125, 148–150 h Hardenability (of steels) 100, 127 Hard-facing see Multi-pass/Multiple-pass welding or welds, Welding Heat-affected zone (HAZ) 158, 169 discontinuities 170 Heat flow (factors affecting) 159 Heat input/weld heat input 141 Heat solid (Portevin-Severin) 140 Heat-straightening see Flame straightening (heat straightening) Heat tint see Weld heat tint Heterogeneous (defined) 300 Heterogeneous welding or filler 302 High-alloy (tool or stainless steels) see Steel(s) High-energy-density welding 63 High-frequency electromagnetic vibration (of welds) 305 High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels 261 Homogeneity (defined) 300 Homogeneous welding 302 Hot cracks/hot cracking 91, 147–148 centerline cracks/cracking 93, 94, 144 constitutional liquation cracking 93, 97, 163 crater cracks/cracking 93–95, 144 fusion-line cracks/cracking 93 liquation cracking 93, 97, 162 (see also Constitutional liquid cracking) longitudinal cracks/cracking 93, 144 reheat cracks/cracking 93, 181, 183–184 strain-age cracking (reheat cracking) 5, 21, 92, 170, 183–187, 257, 258, 261, 267–270 transverse cracks 144, 315 Hot working (defined) 277 Hybrid structures 305 Hydrogen-assisted or induced cracking 99, 109, 182, 239 Hydrogen embrittlement 99 i Immiscibility 313 Impurities (in welds) 307 foreign-matter inclusions 307 gas impurities 307 non-metallic impurities 307 Impurity elements 307 see also Residual stresses or locked-in stressesIndex 327 Included (joint) angle 31 Inclusions see Solid inclusions Incomplete or insufficient penetration see Discontinuities Ingel’s equation for stress concentration 90 Inhomogeneity (in welds) 300 Integral mechanical attachment 310 Intergranular corrosion 250 Intergranular corrosion cracking 177 Intergranular or interdendritic cracking 91, 92 Intermetallic compound (defined) 288 Interpass temperature(s) 262 Iron-carbon phase diagram see Fe-Fe3C phase diagram j Joint discontinuities cold seam (see Weld bead overlap) convexity (excessive) 39, 41 excessive reinforcement 35, 39 incomplete or insufficient penetration 35–37 lack of fusion or incomplete fusion 36–38 undercut 41–42 underfill 38–39 weld bead overlap (or cold seam) 39, 41, 42 Joint efficiency (defined) 25 Joint geometry see Weld joint types Joint permanency 1 Joint set-up problems 25, 31 angular misalignment 31–33 linear misalignment (mismatch) 31, 32 Joint types (welding) 13 butt joints 13 corner joints 13 edge joints 13 lap joints 13 tee or T joints 13 k Knife-line attack 252–253 l Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion see Joint discontinuities Lamellar tearing 189, 190 Larsen-Miller parameter (in creep) 259 Limiting property 299 Linear misalignment see Joint set-up problems Liquation cracks/cracking see Hot cracks/hot cracking Liquid-metal-induced embrittlement (LME) 313–314 Liquidus temperature 50, 157 Location of problems in welds see Problems in welds (defined), and Part 2 Locked-in stresses see Residual stresses Longitudinal cracks/cracking see Hot cracks/hot cracking Longitudinal (residual) stresses see Residual stresses Low-alloy steels see Steel(s) Low-C grades of stainless steels see Stainless steels m Machining 14 Macrosegregation (in welds) 152–153, 300, 312 Manifestation of weld problems see Problems in welds (defined), and Part 1 Martensite (ferrous) 100, 127–128, 150–151, 182 Martensitic transformation *in steels 179 Matching/matched filler 211, 302–303 Material specificity of welding problems see Problems in welds (defined), and Part 3 Mechanical fastening 26, 310 Mechanical incompatibility 315 Mechanical joining 310 Mechanical stresses 47 Medium-alloy steels see Steel(s)328 Index Melting point (defined) 50, 157 Melting temperature (defined) 157 Metallic (or material) continuity 9, 10, 169, 219 Metallic inclusions see Solid inclusions Metallurgical notches (stress risers) 196 Microfissuring (in the PMZ) 165 Microsegregation (during solidification) 96, 152, 300 Microstructural zones (in welds) 13, 14, 17–18, 137–141 fusion zone (FZ) 17 heat-affected zone (HAZ) 17 partially-melted zone (PMZ) 18 unaffected base metal (UBM) 17 unmixed zone 137 weld zone (WZ) 17, 137 Mild steels see Steel(s) Mismatch (joint) see Joint set-up problems Modulus of elasticity for metals and alloys 316 Multi-pass/Multiple-pass welding or welds 203, 205 buffering layers (same as cushion layers) build-up layers 203 buttering layers 203, 210 clad layers/cladding (by welding) 206, 211 cover pass 204 cushion layers 203 defects 207–211 fill pass 204 hard-facing 210 hot pass 204 overlapping heat effects and/or HAZs 213 property alteration 213 root pass 204 temper beads/temper bead technique 205–206, 214–215 transition layers 210, 211, 213 underlayers 203, 216 Mushy zone (MZ) 159 n Ni-based superalloys 267 Nickel alloy cracking (due to welding) 104 Nitrogen-enhanced alloys 85 Non-close-packed crystal structure (of metals) 50 Non-equilibrium 157 Non-fusion welding 10, 18–19, 26, 63, 219 advantages of 220 diffusion welding 220, 222–223 friction stir welding see Friction stir welding friction welding 220, 222 pressure welding 210, 222 processes (various) 221 shortcomings of 220 solid-state deposition 223 worked zone (in pressure welds) 284 Non-metallic impurities see Impurities Non-metallic inclusions see Solid inclusions Non-uniform thermal contraction 58 o OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturing) welding 13 Offset (joint offset) see Joint set-up problems Ordered phase(s) (defined) 288, 291 Overmatching or overmatch filler 25, 96, 302–303 Oxide inclusions see Solid inclusions p Partially-melted zone (PMZ) 157–160 cold cracking (hydrogen-induced) 164–165 constitutional liquation cracking 161–164 hot cracking (conventional) 161 liquation cracking 162 microfissuring 165 Partial-penetration welds see Weld joint configurationsIndex 329 Passivation/passivating layer 248 Peening (hammer or shot) see Stress relief, Mechanical PH stainless steels see Stainless steels Pipes (pipe defects in welds) 191 Plain carbon steels see Steel(s) Planishing see Stress relief, mechanical Plastic welding/polymer welding see Thermal bonding Plug welding see Weld joint configurations Porosity (origin) 67, 143 causes of porosity in welds 80 cavity (see Wormhole porosity) cluster porosity 68, 72 crater pipe 68–69 distributed porosity (see Uniform porosity) effects of 69–70 globular porosity (see Spherical porosity) internal porosity 68, 143 linear porosity 68, 72 piping porosity 68 random porosity (see Uniform porosity) removal of porosity 83–84 sources of porosity 77–80 spherical porosity 68 subsurface (see Internal porosity above) surface-breaking porosity 67–68, 143 uniform porosity 68, 70–72 wormhole porosity 68, 72–73 Post-weld heat-treatment (PWHT) 33, 60, 63, 91, 100–101, 183, 198, 243–244, 261, 262, 267 Precipitation-hardening alloys 171 aging response (curves) 173 heat treatment process 172 phase diagram (generic) 171 prerequisites for precipitation hardening 172 reversion/reversion zone 172 welding effect on microstructure 172–173 welding effect on properties 172–173 welding procedures for 174–176 Predictability (defined) 292 Preheat/preheating 96, 100, 182–183 Preheat temperatures 262 Pre-setting joint elements (to reduce distortion) 61 Pressure welding see Non-fusion welding Problems in welding (categorization) 20 Problems in welds (defined) 19 location (see Part 2) 20 manifestation (see Part 1) 20 material specificity (see Part 3) 21 q Quench cracking 182, 287 r Recovery (after cold work) 273, 276 Recrystallization (after cold work) 273, 276–278 Recrystallization anneal 276 Recrystallization temperature(s) 278 Refractoriness (defined) 305 Reheat cracks/cracking see Hot cracks/hot cracking Removing porosity see Porosity Repair welding 13 Residual stresses (locked-in stresses) 33, 48, 54–57, 60–63 Reversion/reversion zone see Precipitation-hardening alloys Ripple marks/weld ripple marks 118, 121, 124–126 Root bead see Weld root bead Root-bead suck-back see Suck-back Root cause (defined) 80 Root face 31 Root gap 31, 33330 Index s Schaeffler (constitution) diagram 83, 106, 293 Secondary bonding 10 Secondary hardening (in steels) see Steel(s) Second-phase strengthening 171 Segregation-induced cracking see Centerline under Hot cracks Sensitization (in stainless steels) 101, 177, 249, 252 Sensitization cracks/cracking (in SS) 101 Sensitization range 177, 249 Shape welding 207 Shrinkage (during welding) see Dimensional shrinkage Shrinkage cavities 191 Sievert’s law (of gas solubility in welds) 73, 142 Sigma (????) phase 287–290 appearance in microstructure 290 avoiding 293, 294 effects of 291 Gow and Harder ratio factor prediction 293 Hull Creq prediction 294 identification 293 kinetics of formation 290–291, 293 morphologies 289 susceptibility 291, 292 susceptible alloys 291–293 unit cell 289 Woodyatt electron vacancy number prediction 294 Slag (defined) 111 Slag inclusions see Solid inclusions Slot welds see Weld joint configurations Slumping (weld slumping) 34 Soldering 10, 169, 311 Solidification (defined) 52 Solidification growth (in welds) see Growth structure in welds Solid inclusions 109, 151 flux inclusions 109, 112 foreign debris 109 metallic inclusions 109, 114, 151, 152 non-metallic inclusions 109, 110, 151, 185 oxide inclusions 109, 113–114 slag inclusions 109, 112–113, 151–152 sulfide inclusions 114 Solid metal embrittlement 313 Solid-state deposition welding see Non-fusion welding Solidus temperature 50, 157 Solute partitioning (during solidification) 300 Spatter 118, 126, 127 Stabilized grades of stainless steels 101–102, 179, 251 Stainless steels 247 austenitic Mn-steels (Hadfield steels) 247, 266 austenitic stainless steels 249 knife-line attack 252–253 low-C grades 251 PH stainless steels 263, 266 sensitization (see Sensitization) solutionizing treatment/solution anneal 252 stabilized grades 251 weld decay 21, 177, 179, 247–254 start and stop tabs (for welding) see Tabs Stainless steel cracking (due to welding) 105–106 Steel(s) 235–237 blue brittleness (temper embrittlement) 240 carbon (plain C or mild) steels 238 embrittlement of 238, 239 forms of product 237 high-alloy steels 238, 247 hydrogen cracking of (see Hydrogen-assisted or induced cracking) low-and medium-alloy steels 238 residual stress effects in 243 secondary hardening 240Index 331 stainless steels 239 temper embrittlement (blue brittleness) 240 tool steels 239 varieties of 237 Steel cracking (due to welding) 104–105 Strain-age cracking 257, 267–269 see also Hot cracks/hot cracking Strain-hardening (also work-hardening) 274–275 Strengthening mechanisms 14–17, 170 Stress concentration 90 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) 190, 193–195 Stress raiser(s)/stress riser(s) 89–90, 196 Stress relaxation cracking 257, 265 Stress relief, mechanical 198–199 Stress relief, thermal (after welding) see Post-weld heat treatment Stress relief cracking 257, 262–264 Striations see Fatigue fracture features Stringers (non-metallic) 189, 190 Structure-property-processing interrelationship14 213 Sub-solidus liquation cracking 161 Suck-back 39 Sulfide inclusions see Solid inclusions Sugaring 122 Superalloys 267 Surface profile-induced cracking see Centerline under Hot cracks Surface welding see Welding (defined); Weld joint configurations t Tabs (welding start and stop tabs) 54, 95 Tack welding/tack welds/tacking 34–35, 61, 62 Taxonomy (of welding processes) see Classification Temper beads/Temper bead technique see Multi-pass/Multiple-pass welding or welds Temper colors (heat tint) 129 Temper embrittlement 240 Tempering 18, 240–2413 Terminal overload area see Fatigue fracture features Thermal bonding (plastic welding) 7, 8, 311 Thermal incompatibility 315, 317 Thermally-induced stresses 47, 52, 185 due to CTE mismatch 52 due to thermal expansion/contraction 47, 185 due to volumetric shrinkage 47, 48, 51, 52, 185 Thermal stress relief see Post-weld heat treatment Thermophysical properties (of materials) 51, 59 Thumbnail origins see Fatigue fracture features Titanium alloy cracking (due to welding) 106 Toughness (defined) 273 Transition layers see Multi-pass/Multiple-pass welding or welds Transition pieces (for dissimilar welding) 317 Transverse (residual) stresses see Residual stresses Troubleshooting 5, 20 Types of weld joints see Weld joint types Types of welds see Weld types u Ultrasonic vibration (of welds) 305 Unacceptable welds (bad welds) 1, 3, 19, 117, 120, 123–124 Unaffected base metal (UBM) 189 Undermatched or undermatching filler 302–303 Uniformity (definition) 298–299 Unmixed zone (UMZ) 304–306332 Index w Warpage see Distortion (warpage) Weakest link concept 298–299 Weld (defined) 19 Weldability(defined) 102 Weld appearance 117 Weld contour 118 Weld cracks see Cracks (defined) Weld crown bead/weld bead crown 118, 119 Weld decay see Sensitization in stainless steel Weld dilution see Dilution (in fusion welds) Weld heat input see Heat input/weld heat input Weld heat tint 129–131 Welding (defined) 7, 9, 13 clad welding 13 fusion welding (see Fusion welding) hard-facing 13 non-fusionwelding (see Non-fusion welding) OEM welding 13 pressure welding (see Non-fusion welding) repair welding 13 surface welding 13, 27–28 Weld joint configurations 27–28 bevel grooves/bevel welds 29, 30 blind welds (partial-penetration welds) 27 full-penetration welds 27 groove welds 28 J-grooves 30 K-joints 30 partial-penetration welds (blind welds) 27 plug welds 27–28 slot welds 28 square/straight butt welds 28, 30 U-grooves (single or double) 30 V-grooves (single or double) 30 Weld joint problems 25 Weld joint types 27 Weldment (defined) 19 Weld pool convection (forces and effects) 84–85, 301 Weld profile (weld shape) 31, 35, 40, 41, 119 Weld ripple marks see Ripple marks/weld ripple marks Weld root bead/weld root 121 Weld shape see Weld profile (weld shape) Weld spatter see Spatter Weld types 13 Weld width 118 Weld zone (WZ) see Microstructural zones (in welds) Worked zone (in pressure welds) 284 Work-hardening (also strain hardening) 273–274 WRC diagram 83 Wrought (products and microstructure) 25 y Yield point, Upper-and Lower-(in steels) 279 z Zones (of microstructure in welds) see Microstructural zones (in welds)
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