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| موضوع: كتاب Industrial Instrumentation and Control الإثنين 11 يناير 2021, 10:17 pm | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Industrial Instrumentation and Control Third Edition S. K. SINGH Head Maintenance Service Group الكتاب هو الجزء المعروض فقط على جوجل كتب - Google Books
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents Preface Acknowledgements .X f l l PART I MEASI KKMKM CONCEPTS L . Basic Cunccpls unit Qualifies of Mcasurccm' iil 1.1 Introduction / 1.2 Measure mein and its Aim / 13 The Functional Elements of tin Instrument 2 1.4 Perforinance Characterislics 4 1.5 Statistical Analysis / 0 Seif -check Quiz II Review Questions 12 I PART it ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS 2. I nits and Standards of Measurements 2.1 Introduction 13 22 Units of Measurement 13 23 Standards of Measurement I ft 2A Time Standards and Automatic Frequency 21 Scif-check Quiz 21 Review Questinns 23 3. Electrical Measuring Instruments 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Classification 24 33 Essentials of Instruments 25 3.4 Types of Electrical Instruments 23 3.5 Moving-Inset Instruments 2 S 3.<> Moving-Coil Instruments 33 13 24xvi Gorf tent 3.7 Hot-W i re lustrumen ts 41 3.$ Induction Instruments 4.i 3,9 Electrostatic Instruments 47 3. SO Insulation Testing Merger 5 / 3.11 Instrument Traustbnner 52 3.12 Potentiometer 56 Worked Exunip!'es 68 Self-check Quiz 70 Review Questions 72 4. Mower and Energy Measurements 4.1 Introduction 74 4.2 Fowar Measu re menl 74 Energy Measurement 90 Self checht Quiz 97 Rewiew Questions 99 5. M agiiet ip MLMS II rpments 5.1 Introduction 100 5.2 Ballistic Galvanometer 191 5.3 Flux Meter 102 5.4 Determination of B-H Curve U)4 5.5 Dclcnn [nation of Hysteresis Loop 1 / 0 Worked Examples / 14 Self-check Quiz i / 8 Review Questions } 19 74 4.3 mo PART 111 PROCESS PA RAMETER MEASL!RE VI E\TS d, Electronic Measurements Introduction 12 / Analog Electronic Voltmeter 122 Digital Electronic Voltmeter ( DVM) 155 Digilal Mu Elimeter (DMM ) 14 / Virtual Multimeter (VMM) 142 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) / 44 Frequency Measurement / 58 Phnse Angle Measurement / 70 Signal Generator 174 F u net ion Genora (or / 79 Wave Analyzer ISl Distortion Measurement 1.84 {)'Factor Measurement IRS Worked Examples / 91 Seif check Quiz ( 96 Review Questions 198 m 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 61 6.H 6.9 6.10 6 , i L 6.12 6.13Content XV LK tm ta- rn m m m m t m m jm m a B a a 7. Displacement Forr , Lnrqne and Speed Measurement 7r| introduction 20 / 7.2 Mfas EI rement oH )isplaceinen t 20 / 7.3 Measure men! of Force 20A 7 A Measurement uf Torque 214 7.5 Measurement ScIf-check Quiz 225 /Review Questions 222 M. Dimension Measurement 8.1 introduction 225 8.2 Thickness Measurement 225 8.3 Laser-based Length Measurement 256 8.4 Camera-based Width Measurement 258 8.5 Laser Diameter Gauge 259 Self-check Oniz 240 Review Questions 242 9, Density^ Viscosity and f i l l Measurements 9.1 introduction 245 9.2 Density Measurement 245 9.3 Viscosity Measurement 27 i 9.4 pH Measurement 279 Self-check Quiz 287 Review Questions 289 It), Level Measurement 10.1 Introduction 290 10.2 Methods of Liquid Level Measurement 290 10.3 Direet Mel hods 290 10.4 Hook-Type Level Indicator 290 10.5 Sight Class 29 f 10.6 Float-Typf 1 eye I 1 ndicator 293 10.7 l >isplacer L evel De tectors 295 10.8 indirect Methods 297 10.9 Hydrostatic Pressure Type 297 10.10 Pressure Gauge Method 297 10.11 Air bellows 298 10.12 Air Purge System 299 10.13 I.iquid Purge System 500 lp.J4 Electrical Methods JOf ] 0.15 Cnpac i tance Leve I 1ndicalor 301 10.16 Rctdialion Level Detector 302 10.17 Laser Level Sensors 505 10.18 Microwave Level Switches 506 10.19 Oplieal Level Detectors 309 10.20 Ultrasonic Level Detectors 310 201 225 243 338Eli XVII!- GMteflt JB M. 10.21 Eddy Current Level Measureme nt Sen SOTS 31i 10.22 Servian,£ of Lfyel Measuring Instruments $13 10.23 Selection of Level Sensors 514 Self-check Quiz 314 Review Omsfivtis 519 11. Flow Measurftntent Introduction 321 Methods of Flow Measurement 321 Inferential Flow Measurements 322 Qua nt i ty FIow meters 347 Mass Flowmeters 354 Calibration of Flowmeters '355 Selee tion oI" Flow motors 359 $$If-cfack Quiz JrfJ Review Questinns 365 12 - Pressure Measurement Introduction 366 Pressure 366 Methods of Pressure Measurement 368 Manometers 368 Elastic Pressure Transducers Mcasu rein ent of Vacuum 377 Force-balance Pressure Gauges 332 Electrical Pressure Transducers 385 Pressure Switches 393 12.10 Calibration of Pressure Measuring Instruments 394 12.1! Maintenance and Repair ol Pressure Measuring Instruments 395 12.12 Troubleshooting 396 Saif-check Quiz 460 Review Onestinits 4it2 i l l JH 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 1IJ6 11.7 36 h 12.1 12.2 12.3 124 12.5 372 12.6 12.7 E2.M \2.1) 33. Temperature Measurement Introduction 464 Temperature 464 Temperature Scales 405 Methods of Temperature Measurement 408 Expansion Thermometers 468 Filled-s ystcm Therm ometers 413 Electrical Temperature Instruments 426 Pyrometers 432 tr Fiber-optic Temperature Measurement Systems 436 13.10 Ultrasonic Thermometers 438 13. IE Calibration of Thermometers 446 13- 12 Femperature Measurement Consideration 441 Seif-check Quiz 448 Review Questions 450 404 IV] 13.2 13.3 134 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.4Content xix n « eii 9ses?4a«4 w (TW ««« f? a WH1?! (TW* «sea V^!R irn 9V4BW H-4"H PI"« w n B w w w wins u*i nv^ 9 irn sn e PB4 PART IV AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 5 4, Automatic Process Control Systems and Controller) Introduction 452 History of Process Control Systems 455 Examples of Process Consul Systems 455 Block Diagram Representation of Process Control Systems 450 Transfer Functions of Control. System 453 ITansfer Functions of Physical Systems 459 F>iiTerenlial Equations 412 Laplace Transform 415 Types of Process Control Systems 479 14.10 Application, Based Classification of Control Systems 494 14.1! Automatic Controllers 496 14.12 Classification of Controllers 504 14,0 Control Objectives 524 14.14 EJenefits of Process Control Systems 529 14.15 Process Control La^rs 530 14.16 Levels uf Process Control System Self-check Quiz 531 Revisw QuesHans 533 452 14.1 14.2 14.2 14.4 145 146 14.7 14.fi 14,9 530 PART V CO31PL11 EK-AIDl|> COM ROL 15. Sensors and TrsnulucEn Introduction 554 Sensors 534 Transducers 538 Primary Sensing Elerijetijpi 540 Electrical Transducer* 542 Selection of Transducers 543 Transmission Lines 547 Final Control Elements 547 Self-check Quiz 543 Review Questions 550 16, Transmitters, Telemetry Systems and Recorder* Introduction 551 Transmitters 551 Telemetry Systeins 565 Recorders 577 Scif-check Quiz 537 Review Qu&ttions 533 534 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 L 5.S< 551 Id l 16.2 L 6.3 16.4xx Content 17. Computer-aided Measurement and fruuirnl Systems Introduction 590 17.2 Role of Computers m Measurement and Control (Proeess Control) 17.3 Elements of Computer-aided Measurement and Control :> £>.? 17.4 Computer-aided Process Control Architecture 595 17.5 Man machine Interface ( MM 3 ) 600 17.6 Computer-aided Process Control Hardwire 601 17.7 Proeess-rclaied Interfaces 609 17.8 Communication and Networking 622 17.6 [ ndustria 3 Cornffiiinication Sysiems 631 17.10 DtUa Transfer TeehniQucs 634 17.1 E Computer-aided Process fjontrol Software 636 17.12 Real’time Operating System ( RTOS) 640 17.13 Real-time Application Software for Process Control 648 17.14 Software Fault Tolerance 652 17.15 Computer-based Data Acquisition (DAQ) System 65$ 17.16 Economics of Computer-aided Process Control 662 S&if*check Quiz 662 Review Questions 665 56ft 17.1 PART VI INSTRUMENT SELECTION AND COMMISSIONING IK. Prugramiirable Lu^ to Coni mile rs EnLroditcliiun to Mic recoin puiers 66? 18.2 Programmable Controllers 66 ft L 8.3 P rngrumm ab le Lay io Contml lers { P L Cs ) 66 ft 18.4 PLC Programming 672 18.5 Ladder Diagram 674 18.6 PLC Communications arid fcfetworking 677 18.7 PLC Selection 677 18.8 PLC Inslulialion 679 18.9 Advantages of Using PLCs 6 ft0 Saif-check Quiz 680 Review Questions 6 ft 1 667 18.1 16. Distributed Control System 164 Introduction 6 ft2 16.2 Overview of Distribuied Control 682 16.3 DCS Soilware Configuration 688 16.4 DCS Commirnieution 690 16.5 DCS Stipervisory Computer Tttsks 693 16.6 DCS integration with PLCs and Computers 696 16.7 Features oM'JCS 69 ft 16.8 Advantages of DCS 698 682Content _ -s. _ _.L_ — _ _ — — — ir L — — — !.-rr -i — - — *! — «* — — — _ < a. -L Self-check Quiz 699 Review Questions 700 20, Application of Control Systems Introduction 701 Basic Principle 701 Electrical Control Systems 706 r Hydraulic Control Systems 70 fl Pneumatic Control Systems 770 Electric Oven Temperature Control 772 Thickne&ss and Fldness Control System for Metal Rollmu 7 / V Automat to Control of Metal Width and IliLekneiis 777 Photoelectric Control System 720 Self-check Quiz 726 Review Questions 727 Till 20.1 202 203 2Q.4 203 20.0 20.7 20.K 20.9 Append i\ 729 Abbreviations 729 Greek Alphabets 737 References 732 Indei 735Index A Automatic Gauge Control ( AGQ 718 Automatic Width Control (AVVQ "18 A RL 11 L i.! U i . i ‘ i ri ; u :in tf r M 5 r l_ k] LLjd -filEcd Thorniojn etors 414 Mercury-fit Led Thermometers 415 A .C -electronic voltmeter (ACEVM) m Avs rage-rtspond i ng a _c. electr*mic voltmeter 125 Peak-responding a.c, electronic voltmeters L22 RMS-responding a .c . electronic voltmeter 129 Absolute instrumerits 24 Absolute units 15 Accuracy 4 Limit of error 4 Analog electnjnic voltmeters 122 A nalpg-to-d ig Ita I Con verlers ( ADC) 61U Arithmetic mean 10 Audio Frequency t Automatic Controllers 496 Controllers 504 Dertvativ? control action 50I Electronic controllers 5IS Hydraulic mntmllers 513 Integral {]) control inside 500 On-ot'f control action 497 (PID) control 502 Pneumatic Controllers 504 Proportional (P) controller 49V Proportional-p I us-d erivati vfl (FD) control 5t)2 P roporliona L-pJ us-in tegra l ( PI ) control 502 B ttrif curves 104 Backlash 6 Ballistic galvanometer bus In terrace 606 Analog interfaces 610 EISA Bus 608 ISA AT Bus 608 ISA Bus 607 MCA Bus 608 MU-Bus 608 S- IUd Bus 607 EO ] c Calibration 4 Calibration of Thermometers 440 Calibration of Thermocouples 440 Calibration of liquid flowmeters 355 Selection of Flowmeters 359 Calibration of Pressure 594 Capacitive transducer 207 Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) 144 Analog ( Dual-trace) CKO 150 CaLhode ray tube (CRT) 144, 145.. 146 Digital CRO 153 Wavimeter 160 Centralized Computer C-untroJ Systems 595 CCS System of Units 15 CGS Electrostatic svstem 15 CCS Electromagnetic system 15736 index Characteristics, performance 4 Composition Control 704 Computer-aided process control 593 Csfttralj^ed Computer Control Systems 595 Distributed: Computer Control Systems 595 I tierarchicnl Computer Control System 597 Man-machine 600 Digital electronic voltmeter, Continuous-balancing DVM 138 integrating-type DVM 1.37, 138 Ramp-type DVM 135 S ticcessi v e-a pprox i in ation DVM 139 Digital Interfaces 619 RS-232C Interfile 621 RS-422A In terface 621 RS-485 Interface 621 digital mo I ti meter (DMM ) 141 Digital-to-a n a I Ug <’(>0VCittrS {DAC) 613 Dispin cement 201 Ponded strain gauge 2Q3 Resistance strain gauge 201 Unbonded strain gauge 204 Distort Lem 184 Eieciric distortion measurements 186 \ 1armoteasuremuni [88 Spectrum analyzer 182 Distributed control system (DCS} 682 Drift 5 Dynamic Error 8 Dynamic Response 8 'Zero-order instrument 8 F i rst-orderinstrument 9 Second-order pnsirumerit 9 I Vi D Lie: , electrunic voltmeter 130 Chopper-type d .c. amplifier 132 Chopper-type tic. amplifier electronic voltmeter 132 Direct-erupted d .c. amplifier d .e. electronic voltmeter 131 Damping torque 25 Data acquisition ( DAQ) system 653 Pata-presentattoin element 2 Data-transmission element 2 Dead zone 6 Density 243 Tuning fork densitometers 257 Density Measurement 243 r' Balance type densitometers 263 Coriolis densitometer 253 Density 243 Cas density measure ment 248 Hydrostatic densitometers 262 6T Liquid density measurement 247 Magnetic methods of density Measurement 251 Pvcnometric densitometer 260 K Solid density in tii'j n rOme rt t 246 Vibrating cylinder denst tometer 256 Vibrating Tube Densitometer 354 Vibrational Methods of Density Measurement 253 Weight Method of Density Measurement 266 Derived qua n ti ties 14 Deviation \([ Average deviation id standard deviation 11 Diameter gauge 239 Differential equations 472 E Eddy current level measurement sensor 311 Electrical Pressure Iransducui's 385 Capacitive Pressure Transducers 388 FotentioTnetric Pressure Transducers 387 Reluctance Pressure Transducers 390 Strain gauge 385 Electrical control systems 706 Electrical temperature instruments 420 Resistance Thermometer 420 Thermistors 430 Thermocouples 422 Electronic voltmeter 122 Electrostatic instruments 47Index 737 Strain gauge load cell 21J Force-balance Pressure Gauges 382 ]?tn]1 type of pressure gauge 384 Dead -iveig h t piston 382 Ring balance gauge 383 Frequency 15 ft Frequency Meters 162 Frequency Rioniters 164 Function generator .ITS Fundamental quE^iiLilic;^ L4 Quadrant Atitect^d-di type &c electrometer electrometer*4.247 Energy meters 90 AC. induction-type energy meters 94 Elihu-Thoitison Commuta for Motor Meter 92 Ferranti mercury motor meter 90 Phase errors 95 Single phase energy 94 ThreE?-phase energy meb&tp 95 English system of units 17 Expansion thermometers 408 Bimetallic Thermometers 409 Gas Thermometers 417 Liquid - in-glass thermometer 4\ l Liquid - in -metal thermometer 4.12 H heterodyne frequency meter 162 Hitt- Wire Instruments 41 Hydraulic Control Systems 70ft Hydrometers 265 Radiation densitometer# 268 Refraetbmetric densitometers 269 Hysteresis 2 30 F Fi\l i r-ei p tic it nt pe r atu m measurement 436 Fidelity fi I 'i el J - b uses 632 Modbus 633 Profi-Bus 633 Rack -bus 633 Smart Ertinemitters 632 [ 'inbil contrchi elements 547 Mow Control 704 Flotv measurements 321 Annubar lube 330 hall tube 328 Differential Flowmeters 322 Elbow laps 331 Flow nozzles 327 Flume 332 Orifice plates 324 Vifitur: tube 326 Pi to l tubes 329 Rotameter 332 Variable Area Flowmeters 332 Weirs 331 Flu* density 134 Flux motor 1U2 Grassut flu* meter L03 Force 208 Electric force transducers 211 Hydraulic force meter 21Sft Pneumatic force meter 209 Press cl uctor load cells 213 I Indicating instruments, 25 CjmtroEling (ttr resithring) torque 25 Controlling torque 25 Damping torque 25, 27 Deflecting ^or operatmg) torque 25 Deflecting Torque 25 Induction type instruments 4.3 Ferraris-Type Induction Instrument 44 Shaded -Pole Type Induction Instrument 45 Instrument transformers 52 Current transformers 54 Potential transformers 54 Instrumentation 1 Insulation testing megger 51 International System (SI) of Units US Interrupt 636 ISO Reference Model 629 L Ladder diagrams 674 Lag 8 [ dp]irK' -p trarisforrns- 473 Laser-based length measurement 23673B index Laser doppler Vttlocimetef {LDV) 236 Level meretirement 290 Air bellows 298 Air purge 299 Capacitance level indicator 30 ] Displacer Level Detectors 295 Float-Type Level Indicator 293 Hook-type level indicator 291 Laser Level Sensors 303 Liquid ptirgL- system 300 .Microwave level detectors 306 Pressure Cange Method 297 Radiation level detectors 302 Ranges 292 Sight glass 291 Linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) 205 Liquid-level Control 70S Local area Metwork ( LAN ) 627 instruments 28 Double’vane type moving-iron instrument 29 Multiplexing 616 O Opera lhig system 640 Real-time operating system 640 Optical level detectors 309 Fiber -optic Level Detectors 310 Oscilloscope 144 F Parallel Transmiss Lon 625 Performance characteristics ! pH Measurement 279 Glass PlectrLide pi I Measurement 2H4 Phase angle 170 Phase-Difference Meters 171 Photoelectric Control System 720 PLC Frogramining 672 Pneumatic control system 710 Polling 636 Potentiometer 56 A.C’. pUhTitiLnnt'ter 65 Brooks DeJlvLitiun Potentiometer 62 Crompton Potentiometer 59 D.C. potentiometers 57 Polar-type Potentiometer 65 Rectangular co-ordinate type potentiometer 67 Self -halancing Potentiometer 63 Vernier potentiometer 60 Power measu remerits 74 Bolometer 77 Calorimeter method 79 Dynamometer Wattmeter 81 Induction Wattmeters 82 One-wattmeter method 89 1'h roe-watt meter ritethod of power measureincm 88 Two-wattmeter method of power measurement 89 Wattmeter Method 81 Precision 4 Con formi ty 5 Significant figures a M Magnetic Flowmeters 335 Magnetic flowmeters 335 Magnetic measurements 100 Magnetizing force 107 Mar^Machfne interface ( V f M i j 696 Manometer 368 Barometer 37U Inclined tube manometer 370 Micromanometer 370 U-tube Manometer 3.-GJ8 WeII- type Manometer 369 Mass flowmeters 354 Cali bra tion of flowmeters 355 Measurement 2 Memory Management 647 Mistakes 6 MKS System of Units 1& Modem 618 Moving-coil instruments 53 Dflubb-VShe type nlOviiig-iron instrument 33 Dynamometer-Type (or Llcctrody - namk) Moving Coil instrument 37 [Yrmantn! magnet moving-coil instrument 3.3 Moving-iron instruments 28 Attraction-type moving-ironIndex 739 Pressure 366 Pressure Transducers 372 BeUows-type gauges 375 C'-type Bourdon Tube Pressure GttUge 372 Diaphragm Pressure Transducers 374 Pressure Control "04 Pressure switch 393 Process 452 Process conlrol 453 Process Conlrol Laws 534) Process control systems 479 Analog and Digital Control Systems 487 Cascade control system 484 Closed -loop or Feedback Control System 480 Computed Variable Conlrol Systems 4&H Feedforward control system 483 — f . inenr and Kon -linear Control Systems 487 Numerical C"< jutrc>] System 495 m Open-loop control system , 479 Optimizing Control Systems 492 Override Control Systems 490 Jr Ratio control system 486 Si: L|uentLLtl control system 494 Servo control system 493 Valve position control ( VPC) 492 Programmable logic «)nfro 11ers (PLCsJ 668 Protocol 631 MAP 631 TOP protocol 632 Pulse Amplitude modulation ( PAM ) 571 Pulse Juration modulation (PJJM ) 572 Pulse Frequency modulation ( PFM ) 372 Pulse position modulation (PPM ). 573 Digital pulse lelemelry 573 Fiber-optic Telemetry 574 Radio telemetry 576 Pyrometers 432 Fiber-optic temperature measurement 436 Optical pyrometers 434 Radiation pyrometer 432 Q -Q Factor 1H8 Quantity flpwrj^lerfc 347 R Kamdom errors 7 Recorders 577 Circular-chart recorders 582 Graphic recorders 578 Mu[tipoint recorders 584 Strip-chart recorders 578 X-Y recorder 586 Repealability 5 Reproducibility 5 Resolution 6 s Secondary instruments 24 Indicating instruments 25 Jutegrating instruments 25 Recording instruments 25 Sensing Llements 540 Electrical Transducers 542 Sensitivity 5 Sensor 457 , 534 Active transducer 539 Analog transducers 539 Composition analyzers 538 Digital transducers 539 Electrical transducer 540 Flow Sensors 537 Mechanical transducers 54U Passive transducer 539 Pressure Sensors 536 Primary transdLKL’rH 538 Secondary transducers, 539 Temperature sensors 535 Serial Transmission 624 Signal generator 174 Random noise signal generator 178 Sweep-frequency Signal Generator 176 Software 636 Application software 638 System software 637 J Speed 2IS Magnetic-drag type of tachometer 220740 index Resonance tachometer 219 Revolution counter 218 Speed of Response & Standard IE HE Standards w International standards 1 St Trimary ( nr basic) standards 19 Seconda ry stanc I a r<3s 19 Working standards 19 Standard of measurement Lti Standard Prefixes 20 Time standard 21 Static characteristics 4 Static error 6 Stalist tea l a na l vsis J tl J Synchronous Transmission 626 Systematic errors 6 Instrumental errors di Environmental errors 7 measurement 222 Nun -eon tact type thick ness gauge 231 Ultrasonic thickness gauge 229 X-ray fluorescence thickness Gauge 235 Torque 214 In-line rotating torque sensor 214 In-line stationary torque sensor 216 Proximity Torque Sensors 217 Transducer 538 Primary transducers 538 Secondary transducers 539 Passive transducer 339 Active transducer 539 Arising transducers 539 Digital transduces 539 Mechanical transducers 540 Eleclrcal transducer 540 Transducers 654 Transfer function 458 Transmission lines 547 Transmitter 457 , , 551 Force-balance transmitters 555 Motion-balance trails mi L ter 556 Pneumatic transmitter 557 Turbine Flowmeters 336 Target Flowmeters 340 Thermal Flowmeters 341 Turbine Flowmeters 338 L , 18 T Tachometer 472 lachornetc r generator 221 A.C. tachometer 221 D.C tachometer 222 Task Management 646 Telemetry, 565 Analog pulse telemetry 571 Current telemetry 568 Electrical telemetry systems 567 Frequency telemetry systems 570 Impulse telemetry systems 570 Pneumatic telemetry system 566 Pulse telemetry 571 U Ultrasonic Flowmeters 346 Doppler flowmeter 347 Ultrasonic flowmeters, 346 Ultrasonic level detectors 310 Ultrasonic thermometer.1-- 4.36 Unit uf measurement 13 Voltage telemetry 567 Temperature 404 Temperature Control 705 Temperature scales 4D5 Thickness Measurement 225 beta-h neks-L'a tte r t h ick n < 's-s g^tige 235 V Capacitance gauges 23.L Capacitive method of thickness Vacuum pressures 377 Capsule Gauges 377 ionization gauge 381 McLeod gauge 377 Thermal-conductivity gauges 379 Variable-conversion element 2 Vnriiihie-mnnipubition element 2 Virtual multimeters (VMMs) 142 measurement 228 Con± jet-1y pe tfijekness measurement 225 Di fferen L i aI He t a-1ransm ission Thickness Gauge 234 Inductive methods of thicknessIndex 741 Viscosity 221 Capillary viscometers 274 Ft tin* cup viscometer!; 273 Industrial viscometers 277 Rotational viscometers 2/6 Vortex Flowmeters 343 analyzer 182 Fleterodyne wave analyzers 183 Wavemeters 160 Width measuremen ( system 238 W Wave analyzer 181 Frequency -selective wave
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