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| موضوع: كتاب Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control السبت 09 يناير 2021, 10:26 am | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control William C. Dunn Second Edition
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents Preface Acknowledgment 1 Introduction Chapter Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 History 1.2 Process Control 1.3 Definition of the Elements in a Control Loop 1.4 Process Facility Considerations 1.5 Units and Standards 1.6 Instrument Accuracy Summary Problems 2 Pressure Chapter Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Basic Terms 2.2.1 Density 2.2.2 Impact Pressure 2.3 Pressure Measurements 2.4 Pressure Formulas 2.5 Measuring Instruments 2.5.1 Manometers 2.5.2 Diaphragms, Capsules, and Bellows 2.5.3 Bourdon Tubes 2.5.4 Other Pressure Sensors 2.5.5 Vacuum Instruments 62.6 Application Considerations 2.6.1 Selection 2.6.2 Installation 2.6.3 Calibration Summary Problems 3 Level Chapter Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Level Formulas 3.3 Level Sensing Devices 3.3.1 Direct Level Sensing 3.3.2 Indirect Level Sensing 3.4 Application Considerations Summary Problems 4 Flow Chapter Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Basic Terms 4.3 Flow Formulas 4.3.1 Continuity Equation 4.3.2 Bernoulli Equation 4.3.3 Flow Losses 4.4 Flow Measurement Instruments 4.4.1 Flow Rate 4.4.2 Total Flow 4.4.3 Mass Flow 4.4.4 Dry Particulate Flow Rate 4.4.5 Open Channel Flow 4.5 Application Considerations 4.5.1 Selection 4.5.2 Installation 4.5.3 Calibration Summary 7Problems 5 Temperature and Heat Chapter Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Basic Terms 5.2.1 Temperature Definitions 5.2.2 Heat Definitions 5.2.3 Thermal Expansion Definitions 5.3 Temperature and Heat Formulas 5.3.1 Temperature 5.3.2 Heat Transfer 5.3.3 Thermal Expansion 5.4 Temperature Measuring Devices 5.4.1 Thermometers 5.4.2 Pressure-Spring Thermometers 5.4.3 Resistance Temperature Devices 5.4.4 Thermistors 5.4.5 Thermocouples 5.4.6 Semiconductors 5.5 Application Considerations 5.5.1 Selection 5.5.2 Range and Accuracy 5.5.3 Thermal Time Constant 5.5.4 Installation 5.5.5 Calibration 5.5.6 Protection Summary Problems 6 Humidity, Density, Viscosity, and pH Chapter Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Humidity 6.2.1 Humidity Definitions 6.2.2 Humidity Measuring Devices 6.3 Density and Specific Gravity 86.3.1 Basic Terms 6.3.2 Density Measuring Devices 6.3.3 Density Application Considerations 6.4 Viscosity 6.4.1 Basic Terms 6.4.2 Viscosity Measuring Instruments 6.5 pH Measurements 6.5.1 Basic Terms 6.5.2 pH Measuring Devices 6.5.3 pH Application Considerations Summary Problems 7 Position, Motion, and Force Chapter Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Position and Motion Sensing 7.2.1 Basic Position Definitions 7.2.2 ON/OFF Position Sensing 7.2.3 Motion and Distance Sensing 7.2.4 Rotation Sensing 7.2.5 Position Application Consideration 7.3 Force, Torque, and Load Cells 7.3.1 Basic Definitions of Force and Torque 7.3.2 Force and Torque Measuring Devices 7.3.3 Force and Torque Application Considerations Summary Problems 8 Safety and Alarm Chapter Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Safety Hazards 8.2.1 Personnel Hazards 8.2.2 Environmental Hazards 8.2.3 Control Equipment Hazards 8.2.4 Process Equipment Hazards 98.3 Safety Sensors 8.3.1 Smoke and Fire Sensors 8.3.2 Heat Sensors 8.3.3 Gas Sensors 8.3.4 Artificial Senses Chemical Sensors 8.3.5 Radiation Detectors 8.4 Process Equipment Safety 8.4.1 Alarm and Trip Systems 8.4.2 Safety Instrumented Systems 8.4.3 Power Loss Fail Safe 8.4.4 Safety Instrumented System Example 8.5 Safety and Protection 8.5.1 Personnel Protection 8.5.2 Environmental Protection 8.5.3 Equipment Protection Summary Problems 9 Electrical Instruments and Conditioning Chapter Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Instrument Parameters 9.2.1 Basic Terms 9.3 Transducers 9.3.1 Definitions 9.3.2 Visual Display Considerations 9.3.3 Mechanical Motion to Electrical Transducers 9.4 Operational Amplifiers 9.4.1 Voltage Amplifiers 9.4.2 Current Amplifiers 9.4.3 Differential Amplifiers 9.4.4 Converters 9.4.5 Buffer Amplifiers 9.4.6 Nonlinear Amplifiers 9.4.7 Instrument Amplifier 9.5 Signal Conditioning 9.5.1 Offset Zero 109.5.2 Span Adjustment 9.5.3 Linearization in Analog Circuits 9.5.4 Linearization in Digital Circuits 9.5.5 Temperature Correction 9.6 Bridge Circuits 9.6.1 DC Bridges 9.6.2 Current-Balanced Bridge 9.6.3 Strain Gauge Sensors 9.6.4 AC Bridges 9.6.5 Capacitive Sensors 9.6.6 Resistance Sensors 9.6.7 Magnetic Sensors Summary Problems 10 Regulators, Valves, and Actuators Chapter Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Pressure Controllers 10.2.1 Regulators 10.2.2 Safety Valves 10.2.3 Level Regulators 10.3 Flow Control Actuators 10.3.1 Globe Valve 10.3.2 Flow Control 10.3.3 Butterfly Valve 10.3.4 Other Valve Types 10.3.5 Valve Characteristics 10.3.6 Valve Fail Safe 10.4 Actuators 10.4.1 Operation 10.4.2 Control Valves 10.5 Electronic Devices 10.6 Application Considerations 10.6.1 Valves Summary Problems 1111 Process Control Chapter Objectives 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Basic Terms 11.3 Control Modes 11.3.1 ON/OFF Action 11.3.2 Differential Action 11.3.3 Proportional Action 11.3.4 Derivative Action 11.3.5 Integral Action 11.3.6 PID Action 11.4 Implementation of Control Loops 11.4.1 ON/OFF Action Pneumatic Controller 11.4.2 ON/OFF Action Electrical Controller 11.4.3 PID Action Pneumatic Controller 11.4.4 PID Action Control Circuits 11.4.5 PID Electronic Controller 11.5 Digital Controllers Summary Problems 12 Documentation and Symbol Standards Chapter Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.2 System Documentation 12.2.1 Manuals 12.2.2 Alarm and Trip System Documentation 12.2.3 Safety Documentation 12.2.4 PLC Documentation 12.2.5 Circuit Diagrams 12.2.6 Bussing Information 12.3 Pipe and Identification Diagrams 12.3.1 Standardization 12.3.2 Interconnections 12.3.3 Instrument Symbols 12.3.4 Instrument Identification 12.4 Functional Symbols 1212.4.1 Actuators 12.4.2 Primary Elements 12.4.3 Regulators 12.4.4 Math Functions 12.5 P and ID Drawings Summary Problems 13 Signal Transmission Chapter Objectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Pneumatic Transmission 13.3 Analog Transmission 13.3.1 Noise Considerations 13.3.2 Voltage Signals 13.3.3 Current Signals 13.3.4 Signal Conversion 13.3.5 Thermocouples 13.3.6 Resistance Temperature Devices 13.4 Digital Transmission 13.4.1 Transmission Standards 13.4.2 Smart Sensors 13.4.3 Foundation Fieldbus and Profibus 13.5 Digital Signal Converters 13.5.1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 13.5.2 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 13.6 Telemetry 13.6.1 Width Modulation 13.6.2 Frequency Shift Modulation Summary Problems 14 Logic Gates Chapter Objectives 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Digital Numbers 14.2.1 Converting Binary Numbers to Decimal Numbers 1314.2.2 Converting from Decimal to Binary 14.3 Digital Logic Gates 14.3.1 Buffer Gate 14.3.2 AND Gate 14.3.3 OR Gate 14.3.4 NOT Gate 14.3.5 Signal Inversion 14.3.6 XOR Gates 14.3.7 Logic Symbols 14.4 Boolean Algebra 14.5 Functional Building Blocks Summary Problems 15 Programmable Logic Controllers Chapter Objectives 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Programmable Controller 15.3 Controller Operation 15.4 Input and Output Modules 15.4.1 Discrete Input Modules 15.4.2 Analog Input Modules 15.4.3 Special Function Input Modules 15.4.4 Discrete Output Modules 15.4.5 Analog Output Modules 15.4.6 Smart Input and Output Modules 15.5 Ladder Diagrams 15.5.1 Input and Output Symbols 15.5.2 Ladder Layout 15.5.3 Ladder Gate Equivalent 15.5.4 Ladder Applications Summary Problems 16 Motor Control Chapter Objectives 16.1 Introduction 1416.2 Motor Classification 16.3 Motor Operation 16.3.1 DC Motors 16.3.2 AC Motors 16.3.3 Single-Phase Motor 16.3.4 Three-Phase Motors 16.3.5 Universal Motors 16.3.6 Stepping Motors 16.3.7 Servomotors and Synchro Motors 16.4 Motor Ratings 16.4.1 Electrical Ratings 16.4.2 Control Equipment Ratings 16.4.3 Enclosure Standards 16.5 Motor Control Applications 16.5.1 Two- and Three-Wire Starting 16.5.2 Startup Control 16.5.3 Wound Rotor Motor 16.5.4 Speed Control 16.5.5 DC Motor 16.5.6 Actuator Control 16.5.7 Stepper Motor 16.6 Motor Protection Summary Problems A Units B Thermocouple Tables C References and Information Resources D Abbreviations Glossary Answers to Odd-Numbered Questions Index Index Please note that index links point to page beginnings from the print edition. Locations are approximate in e-readers, and you may need to page down one or more times after clicking a link to get to the indexed material. A Abbreviations, 275–276 Absolute accuracy, 126 Absolute humidity, 82 Absolute position, 98 Absolute pressure, 15 Absolute zero, 62 Acceleration, 98, 103 Accelerometer, 103 Accuracy, 9, 126 absolute, 10, 126 percentage full-scale, 10 Acidity, 93 Actuator, 5, 157 Actuator symbols, 187–189 ADC (See Analog-to-digital converter) Air Supply, 7, 33, 160, 174 Alarm and trip documentation, 182 Alarm and trip systems, 117 Alkalinity, 93 Alternating current bridges, 143 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 7, 117, 181, 182, 184 American Society for Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 25 442Amplification, 131 Amplifier, 131–137 buffer, 134 converters, 133 current, 132 differential, 132 instrument, 136 inverting, 131 nonlinear, 135 operational, 131 voltage, 131 Amplitude modulation, 208 Analog circuits, 131–140 Analog signal noise, 196 Analog signal transmission, 196 Analog-to-digital converter (ADC), 179, 202, 205, 206 Analytical balance, 107 Anemometers, 55 Aneroid barometer, 24 Angular measuring devices, 104–105 Angular motion, and position, 98 ANSI (See American National Standards Institute) Anticipatory action (See Derivative action) Arc-minute, 98 ASME (See American Society for Mechanical Engineers) Atmospheric pressure (atm), 15 B Backup systems, 117 Balanced cage guided valve, 154 Ball valve, 155 Barometer, 24 Base units, 8 Bellows, 22 443Bernoulli equation, 45, 47 Beta ratio, 52 Bimetallic strip, 70 Binary numbers, 213 Bits, 215 Boolean Algebra, 221–222 Bourdon tube, 23 Bridge circuits, 140 ac, 143 current balanced, 141 dc, 140 lead compensation, 141 Wheatstone, 141 British Thermal Unit (Btu), 62 Bubbler systems, 33, 90 Buffer amplifiers, 134 Buoyancy, 18, 30 Butterfly valve, 155 C Calibration: flow sensors, 58 pH-measuring devices, 95 pressure-sensing devices, 26 temperature measuring, 78 Calorie, 63 Capacitive hygrometer, 87 pressure devices, 25 Capacitive probes, 31, 36 Capacitive sensors, 25, 35 Capsule, 22 Celsius scale, 61 Centigrade scale, 61 Centimeter-gram-second (CGS) (See Metric units) Chemical sensors, 116 444Closed-loop feedback, 3, 4, 159, 172–178 Coefficient of heat transfer, 66 Coefficient of thermal expansion, 65, 68 Concentric plate, 50 Condensation, 83 Conduction, 64 Conductive probes, 35 Continuity equation, 45 Continuous process control, 166 derivative action, 169 integral action, 170 PID action, 171 proportional action, 168 Control loop implementation, 172 control mode, 166 derivative mode, 175 integral mode, 176 PID mode, 171 pneumatic, 174 proportional derivative mode, 176 proportional integral mode, 176 proportional mode, 175 Control parameter range, 166 Controlled variable, 34, 166 (See also Manipulated Variable) Controller, 5 ON/OFF action, 167 PID action, 175, 177 pneumatic, 174 programmable logic controller (PLC), 5, 178, 227–242 Convection, 64 forced, 64 natural (free), 64 Conversion between measurement units, 8, 9, 263–265 Converters, 5, 128, 133 Converting numbers, 215–217 binary to decimal, 215 binary to hexadecimal, 216 445decimal to binary, 217 Correction signal, 5 Coulomb (C), 9 Couple, 106 Current amplifier, 132 Current signal, 198 D DAC (See Digital-to-analog converter) Dall tube, 50 DCS (See Distributed control systems) Dead band, 166 Dead time, 166 Dead-weight tester, 26 Decibel, 102 Decimal numbers, 215–217 Demultiplexers, 179, 229 Density (ρ), 14, 88 (See also Specificgravity) Density measuring devices, 89 differential bubblers, 90 gas density, 15 hydrometers, 89 induction hydrometer, 90 pressure, 90 radiation density sensors, 91 vibration sensors, 90 Derivative action, 169 Dew point, 82 Diaphragm, 21 Dielectric constant, 31, 87 Differential action, 167 Differential amplifiers, 132 Differential bubblers, 90 Differential pressure, 16 Digital building blocks, 224 446Digital controllers (See Programmable logic controller) Digital signal transmission, 201 Digital-to-analog converter (DAC), 179, 202, 206–208 Direct reading level sensors, 31–32 Displacers, 34 Distance measuring devices, 101 Distributed control systems (DCS), 202 Documentation, 181–192 Doppler effect, 103 Drag coefficents, 50 Drag viscometer, 93 Drift, 127 Dry bulb, 87 Dry particulate flow rate, 55 Dynamic pressure, 14 Dynamometers, 110 E Eccentric plate, 51, 279 Elbow, 52 Electrical supply, 6 Electrical units, 9 Electrochemical Society, 116 Electromagnetic flow meter, 53 Electromagnetic interference (EMI), 196 Electromagnetic radiation, 196 EMI (See Electromagnetic interference) Energy, 45 kinetic, 47 potential, 47 Engine control, 3 English system of units, 79 Environment, 7, 114 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 7, 121 EPA (See Environmental Protection Agency) 447Equipment hazards, 114 Error signal, 5, 166 Execution mode, 229 Externally connected spring diaphragm regulators, 150 F Facility requirements, 6 Fahrenheit scale, 61 Falling-cylinder viscometer, 93 Farad (F), 9 Feedback loop, 3, 4, 159, 172–178 Fiber optics, 201 Fitting losses, 48 Floats, 32 Flow, 43–58 Bernoulli equation, 45, 47 Beta ratio, 52 continuity equation, 45 dry particulate, 55 laminar, 44 losses, 48 mass, 55 open-channel, 56 Reynolds number, 44 total flow, 45, 54 turbulent, 44 velocity, 43 Flow control valves, 153 (See also Valves) Flow patterns, 45 Flow rate, 45, 50 Flow sensors, 50–56 anemometer, 55 control, 159 Dall, 50 elbow, 52 448electromagnetic flow meter, 53 energy losses, 45 flow nozzle, 50, 52 force, 54 moving vane, 53 nutating disc, 54 open-channel, 56 orifice plate, 50 paddle wheel, 56 pilot static tube, 52 piston, 54 pressure meter, 54 rotameter, 53 turbine, 53 velocity meters, 54 Venturi tube, 50 vortex flow meter, 54 Fluid Newtonian, 92 Flumes, 56 FM (See Frequency modulation) Force, 13, 105 Force sensors, 34, 38, 54, 107–109 Foundation fieldbus, 203 Frequency modulation (FM), 209 Frequency shift keying (FSK), 183, 204, 209 Frictional losses in liquid flow, 48 FSK (See Frequency shift keying) G Gas flow, 149 Gas pressure regulators, 150–151 Gas sensors, 115 catalytic combustion, 115 electrochemical, 116 infrared, 116 449ion sensitive, 116 optical, 116 photoionization, 115 piezoelectric, 116 semiconductor, 115 solid electrolyte, 116 Gas thermometers, 71 Gaseous phase, 63 Gates (See Logic gates) Gauge pressure, 15, 21 Globe valve, 153 Gray code, 105, 213 Grounding, 6 H Hair hygrometer, 86 Hall effect, 99 Hall effect sensors, 32, 99, 145, 152, 247 HART (See Highway addressable remote transducer) Hazards, 114 control equipment, 114 environmental, 114 personnel, 114 process equipment, 114 Head, 17 Heat, 62–68, 115 British thermal unit, 62 calorie, 63 conduction, 64 convection, 64 Joule, 9, 63 phase change, 63 radiation, 65 sensors, 115 specific heat, 64 450thermal energy, 62–65 Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC), 165 Henry (H), 9 Hertz (Hz), 9 Hexadecimal, 215 Highway addressable remote transducer (HART), 183, 203 Hot-wire anemometry, 55 Humidity, 82 absolute, 82 dew point, 82 hygrometers, 86 moisture content, 88 psychrometric chart, 84 relative, 82 specific, 82 Humidity ratio, 82 Humidity sensors, 86–88 capacitive hygrometer, 87 dew point, 87 hair hygrometer, 86 hygrometer, 86 infrared absorption, 88 laminate hygrometer, 86 microwave absorption, 88 piezoelectric/sorption hygrometer, 87 psychrometers, 83 resistive hygrometer, 86 sling psychrometer, 86 HVAC (See Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning) Hydrometer, 89 Hydrostatic paradox, 17 Hydrostatic pressure, 17 Hygrometer, 86–88 Hygroscopic substance, 87, 281 Hysteresis, 127 451I IEC (See International Electrochemical Commission) IEEE (See Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) Impact pressure, 14 Impedance (Z), 143 Inclined manometer, 20 Incremental position, 98 Indirect level-measuring devices, 33–38 Induction hydrometer, 90 Information resources, 271–273 Infrared devices, 102, 116 Input-output scan mode (I/O), 229 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), 220 Institutions, 271 Instrument, 4 Instrument amplifiers, 136 Instrument pilot operated pressure regulator, 151 Instrument Society of America (ISA), 7, 113, 181–184 Instrument symbols, 186 Integral action, 170, 176 Integrator, 177 Interconnection symbols, 185 International Electrochemical Commission (IEC), 117 International system of units, 7 Ionization chamber, 115 Ionization gauge, 25 ISA (See Instrument Society of America) J Joules (J), 63 K Karnaugh map, 221 452Kelvin scale, 61 L Ladder diagrams, 236–239 Ladder logic, 238–242 Lag time, 166 Laminar flow, 44, 92 Laminate hygrometer, 86 LAN (See Local area network) Lasers, 102 Law of intermediate metals, 74 Lead compensation, 140, 200 Level, 29–40 direct measuring devices, 31–32 indirect measuring, 33–38 Level regulators, 152 Level sensors, 31–38 bubblers, 33 capacitive probes, 36 conductive probes, 35 displacer, 34 float, 32 load cells, 37 paddle wheel, 38 pressure devices, 37 radiation, 36 resistive tape, 37 sight glass, 31 ultrasonic devices, 36 Light emitting diodes, 99, 104 Light intensity, 102 Light interference lasers, 101 Light measuring devices, 102 Light sensors, 99, 101 Light to frequency converters, 102 453Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), 21, 101, 130 Linearity, 127 Linearization, 139 Liquid dielectric constant, 31 Liquid filled thermometers, 69–71 Liquid phase, 63 Litmus paper, 94 Load cells, 37, 108 Local area network (LAN), 202, 234 Logarithmic amplifiers, 139 Logic gates, 217–221 AND, 218 buffer, 217 NOT, 219 OR, 218 symbols, 220–221 XOR, 220 LVDT (See Linear variable differential transformer) M Magnetic field sensors, 32, 99, 145, 152, 247 Magneto-resistive element (MRE), 53, 99, 145, 152, 247 Manchester encoding, 201 Manipulated variables, 4 Manometer, 19, 20 inclined, 20 U-tube, 19–20 well, 20 Mass, 8, 106 Mass flow, 46, 55 Math function symbols, 189 McLeod gauge, 25 Measured variables, 4, 166 Mercury thermometers, 69 Metric units, 7 454Microwave absorption, 88 Millibar, 16 Moisture content measurement, 88 Motion, 101–105 acceleration, 98, 103 angular, 98, 104 linear, 97, 98 measuring devices, 101 rectilinear, 98 velocity, 98 vibration, 98, 104, 115 Motors, 245–261 ac, 248–251 classification, 245–246 dc, 246–248 position feedback, 160–161 protection, 260 ratings, 252–255 servo and synchro, 252 speed control, 258 starting, 256 stepper, 251, 260 universal, 251 Moving vane, 53, 57 MRE (See Magneto-restrictive element) Multiplexers, 179, 229 N National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 15, 88, 126 Natural convection, 64 Needle valve, 154 Newton, 9, 14, 16, 17, 264 Newtonian fluids, 92 Nibble, 215 NIST (See National Institute of Standards and Technology) 455Noise, 196 Nonlinear amplifiers, 135 Nutating disc meter, 54 O Occupational safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 113, 121 Offset, 166, 196 Offset zero, 127, 137 ON/OFF control action, 173 Open channel flow, 56 Operational amplifier (op-amp), 131 Optical devices, 103 Orifice plate, 50 OSHA (See Occupational safety and health administration) Outlet losses, 48 Overshoot, 168 P P&ID (See Pipe and instrumentation drawings) Paddle wheel, 38 Parshall flume, 56 Pascal (Pa), 16 Pascal’s Law, 18 Peltier effect, 73 Percent reading, 9, 10 Percent span, 9, 10 Percentage full-scale accuracy, 9, 10 Personal hazards, 114 pH, 93 pH meters, 94 Phase change, 63 Photosensors, 102 PID (See Proportional with derivative and integral (PID) action) Piezoelectric sensors, 103 456Pilot operated pressure regulators, 151 Pilot-static tube, 52 Pipe and instrumentation documentation, 184 Pipe and instrumentation drawings (P&ID), 184–192 Pipe and instrumentation symbols, 185–192 Pirani gauge, 25 Piston flow meter, 54 PLC (See Programmable logic controller) Pneumatic actuators, 159 Pneumatic feedback, 159, 160 Pneumatic transducers, 129 Pneumatic transmission, 196 Poise, 92 Position, 97–105 absolute measurement, 98 angular, 104–105 incremental measurement, 98 measuring devices, 98, 104 Position limit switches, 99 positioners, 159 Positive displacement meters, 54 Potentiometers, 99 Pound mass, 8, 14 Pound weight, 8, 14 Pounds per square inch (PSI), 16 Power control devices, 161 Power loss fail safe, 118 Power switches (electrical), 161 PPM (See Pulse position modulation) Precision, 126 Standard prefixes, 9 Pressure (P), 13–26 absolute, 15 atmospheric, 15 differential, 16 dynamic, 14 gauge, 19 457head, 17 hydrostatic, 17 impact, 14 static, 14 vacuum, 19 Pressure controlled diaphragm regulators, 150 Pressure regulators, 150–151 pilot operated, 151 pressure, 151 spring, 151 weight, 150 Pressure sensors, 19–25 barometers, 24 bellows, 22 Bourdon tube, 23 capacitive, 25 capsules, 22 diaphragm, 21 ionization gauge, 25 manometer, 19 McLeod, 25 piezoelectric, 25 Pirani, 25 selection, 25 solid state, 21 Primary element symbols, 187 Probes: capacitance, 35 conductive, 35 Process-control loop, 3, 4, 159, 172–178 Process control ON/OFF action, 173 Process facility: air supply, 7 electrical supply, 6 grounding, 6 installation and maintenance, 7 water supply, 7 458Profibus, 203 Programmable logic controller (PLC), 5, 178, 227–242 documentation, 183 input modules, 230–232 ladder diagrams, 236–239 operation, 229 output modules, 233–234 smart modules, 234 Proportional action, 168 Proportional and derivative (PD) action, 169 Proportional and integral (PI) action, 170 Proportional with derivative and integral (PID) action, 171 Proximity detectors, 99 PSI (See Pounds per square inch) Psychrometer, 87 Psychrometric chart, 84 Pulse position modulation (PPM), 208 Pulse width modulation (PWM), 208 PWM (See Pulse width modulation) Pyrometer, 74 R Radiation: alpha, 114 beta, 114 detectors, 116 gamma, 114 heat, 65 neutron, 144 x-rays, 114 Range, 126 Rankine scale, 61 Rate action (See Derivative action) Reading accuracy, 126 Rectilinear motion, 98 459Regulators, 150 Relative humidity, 82 Repeatability, 127 Reproducibility, 126 Reset action (See Integral action) Resistance temperature devices (RTDs), 71, 145, 200 Resistive hygrometer, 86 Resolution, 127 Reynolds number (R), 44 Rotameters, 53 Rotary plug valve, 157 Rotating disc viscometers, 93 Rotation sensing, 103 RTDs (See Resistance temperature devices) S Safe failure of alarm and trip, 118 Safety, 7 Safety Instrumented systems (SIS), 117, 182 Safety valves, 152 Sample and hold, 205 Sandia Report, 116 Saybolt instrument, 93 Scan mode, 229 Scan time, 230 Seebeck effect, 73 Self-emptying reservoir, 152 Sensitivity, 126 Sensors, 4, 128 chemical, 166 density, 89 flow, 43–58 force, 30 humidity, 86–88 level, 31–38 460light, 99, 101 magnetic field, 99 pH, 94 position/motion, 98–101 pressure, 19–25 temperature, 69–75 vibration, 98, 103 Sequential motor control, 256 Serial bus, 203 Serial transmission, 204 Servo motors, 252 Set point, 4, 166 SG (See Specific gravity) Shear stress (τ), 92 SI (See Systéme International D’Unités) Sight glass, 31 Signal conditioning analog, 137 Signal conditioning digital, 139 Signal inversion, 131 Signal transmission, 199 current, 198 digital, 201 pneumatic, 196 telemetry, 208 voltage, 197 wireless, 208 Silicon diaphragms, 21 Silicon pressure sensors, 21 SIS (See Safety instrumented systems) Sling psychrometer, 87 Slug, 8, 14 Smart sensors, 202 Smoke detectors, 115 Solid phase, 63 Sorption hygrometer, 87 Span, 126, 196 Span adjustment, 138 461Specific gravity (SG), 14, 88 Specific heat, 64 Specific humidity (See Humidity ratio) Specific weight (γ), 14, 88 Speed, 98 Split body valves, 154 Spring controlled regulator, 150 Spring transducer, 107 Standard organizations, 271 Standards, 7–9 Static pressure, 14 Stepper motors, 251, 260 Still well, 56 Stoke, 44 Strain gauge, 30, 108, 143 Strain gauge sensors, 108, 143 Sublimation, 64 Symbols: actuators, 189 control devices, 238 instrument identification, 187 instruments, 186 interconnections, 185 math function, 189 primary elements, 187 regulators, 189 supply lines, 185 switches, 237 Synchronous motors, 250, 258 Systéme International D’Unités (SI), 7, 9, 263–265 T Taguchi sensors, 115 TDM (See Time division multiplexing) Telemetry, 208 462Temperature, 61 absolute, 62 Celsius, 61 compensation, 140, 142 correction, 140 Fahrenheit, 61 Kelvin, 61 phase change, 63 protection, 78 Rankine, 61 Temperature sensors, 3, 69–75 bimetallic, 70 liquid expansion, 71 mercury in glass, 69 pressure spring, 70 pyrometer, 74 solid state, 75 thermistors, 72 thermocouples, 72 Thermal: conductivity, 64 convection, 64 energy, 61, 63 expansion, 65, 68 radiation, 65 time constant, 76 Thermistors, 72 Thermocouple, 72, 199 Peltier effect, 73 Seebeck effect, 73 tables, 267–269 Thompson effect, 74 Thermohydrometer, 89 Thermometer, 69–71 Thermopile, 74 Time constant, thermal, 76 Time division multiplexing (TDM), 204 463Torque (moment), 105 Torr, 16 Total flow, 45 Total pressure, 14 Total vacuum, 15 Transducers, 5, 128 Transient, 166 Transmitters, 5 Turbine flow meter, 53 Turbulent flow, 44 Two-way globe valve, 153 U Ultrasonic devices, 36, 102 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS), 6 Units and standards, 7, 9 UPS (See Uninterruptible power supply) U-tube manometer, 19–20 V Vacuum, 15, 19 Vacuum instruments, 25 Valves, 152–157 ball, 155 butterfly, 155 fail safe, 157–158 globe, 153 plugs, 154 rotary plug, 157 safety, 152 sizing, 157, 162 symbols, 189 weir diaphragm, 155 Vapor-pressure thermometer, 70 464Variable range, 166 Velocity, 43, 98 Vena contracta, 51 Venturi tube, 50 Vibration, 98, 103 Vibration sensors, 90 Viscosimeter (Viscometer), 93 Viscosity, 44, 91 Viscosity measuring instruments, 93 falling cylinder, 93 rotating disc or drag, 93 Saybolt viscometer, 93 viscometer, 93 Voltage amplifiers, 131 Voltage signals, 197 Voltage to current converters, 133 Volume flow rate, 54 Vortex flow meter, 54 W WAN (See Wide area network) Water pH, 93 Water supply, 7 Wavelengths, 101 Weight, 8, 106 Weight-controlled regulators, 150 Weir, 56 Weir valve, 155 Well manometers, 19–20 Wet-bulb temperature, 87 Wheatstone bridge, 141 Wide area network (WAN), 202, 234 Width modulation, 208 Wireless transmission, 208 465X X-rays, 102 466Table of Contents About the Author 2 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents 6 Preface 16 Acknowledgment 18 1 Introduction 19 Chapter Objectives 19 1.1 Introduction 19 1.1.1 History 20 1.2 Process Control 21 1.3 Definition of the Elements in a Control Loop 23 1.4 Process Facility Considerations 27 1.5 Units and Standards 29 1.6 Instrument Accuracy 32 Summary 33 Problems 34 2 Pressure 36 Chapter Objectives 36 2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 Basic Terms 37 2.2.1 Density 37 2.2.2 Impact Pressure 38 2.3 Pressure Measurements 39 2.4 Pressure Formulas 41 2.5 Measuring Instruments 45 2.5.1 Manometers 45 2.5.2 Diaphragms, Capsules, and Bellows 48 2.5.3 Bourdon Tubes 51 2.5.4 Other Pressure Sensors 53 4672.5.5 Vacuum Instruments 54 2.6 Application Considerations 55 2.6.1 Selection 55 2.6.2 Installation 55 2.6.3 Calibration 56 Summary 56 Problems 57 3 Level 60 Chapter Objectives 60 3.1 Introduction 60 3.2 Level Formulas 61 3.3 Level Sensing Devices 64 3.3.1 Direct Level Sensing 64 3.3.2 Indirect Level Sensing 66 3.4 Application Considerations 74 Summary 76 Problems 77 4 Flow 80 Chapter Objectives 80 4.1 Introduction 80 4.2 Basic Terms 81 4.3 Flow Formulas 84 4.3.1 Continuity Equation 84 4.3.2 Bernoulli Equation 86 4.3.3 Flow Losses 88 4.4 Flow Measurement Instruments 91 4.4.1 Flow Rate 91 4.4.2 Total Flow 97 4.4.3 Mass Flow 98 4.4.4 Dry Particulate Flow Rate 98 4.4.5 Open Channel Flow 99 4.5 Application Considerations 99 4.5.1 Selection 99 4.5.2 Installation 101 4684.5.3 Calibration 101 Summary 102 Problems 102 5 Temperature and Heat 105 Chapter Objectives 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Basic Terms 106 5.2.1 Temperature Definitions 106 5.2.2 Heat Definitions 107 5.2.3 Thermal Expansion Definitions 111 5.3 Temperature and Heat Formulas 112 5.3.1 Temperature 112 5.3.2 Heat Transfer 113 5.3.3 Thermal Expansion 115 5.4 Temperature Measuring Devices 117 5.4.1 Thermometers 117 5.4.2 Pressure-Spring Thermometers 118 5.4.3 Resistance Temperature Devices 120 5.4.4 Thermistors 121 5.4.5 Thermocouples 122 5.4.6 Semiconductors 125 5.5 Application Considerations 126 5.5.1 Selection 126 5.5.2 Range and Accuracy 126 5.5.3 Thermal Time Constant 128 5.5.4 Installation 130 5.5.5 Calibration 131 5.5.6 Protection 131 Summary 131 Problems 132 6 Humidity, Density, Viscosity, and pH 135 Chapter Objectives 135 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Humidity 136 4696.2.1 Humidity Definitions 136 6.2.2 Humidity Measuring Devices 142 6.3 Density and Specific Gravity 146 6.3.1 Basic Terms 146 6.3.2 Density Measuring Devices 147 6.3.3 Density Application Considerations 150 6.4 Viscosity 151 6.4.1 Basic Terms 151 6.4.2 Viscosity Measuring Instruments 152 6.5 pH Measurements 153 6.5.1 Basic Terms 153 6.5.2 pH Measuring Devices 154 6.5.3 pH Application Considerations 155 Summary 156 Problems 156 7 Position, Motion, and Force 159 Chapter Objectives 159 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Position and Motion Sensing 160 7.2.1 Basic Position Definitions 160 7.2.2 ON/OFF Position Sensing 161 7.2.3 Motion and Distance Sensing 165 7.2.4 Rotation Sensing 170 7.2.5 Position Application Consideration 171 7.3 Force, Torque, and Load Cells 172 7.3.1 Basic Definitions of Force and Torque 172 7.3.2 Force and Torque Measuring Devices 173 7.3.3 Force and Torque Application Considerations 178 Summary 179 Problems 179 8 Safety and Alarm 181 Chapter Objectives 181 8.1 Introduction 181 8.2 Safety Hazards 182 4708.2.1 Personnel Hazards 182 8.2.2 Environmental Hazards 183 8.2.3 Control Equipment Hazards 183 8.2.4 Process Equipment Hazards 183 8.3 Safety Sensors 184 8.3.1 Smoke and Fire Sensors 184 8.3.2 Heat Sensors 184 8.3.3 Gas Sensors 184 8.3.4 Artificial Senses Chemical Sensors 186 8.3.5 Radiation Detectors 186 8.4 Process Equipment Safety 186 8.4.1 Alarm and Trip Systems 187 8.4.2 Safety Instrumented Systems 187 8.4.3 Power Loss Fail Safe 189 8.4.4 Safety Instrumented System Example 190 8.5 Safety and Protection 193 8.5.1 Personnel Protection 193 8.5.2 Environmental Protection 193 8.5.3 Equipment Protection 194 Summary 194 Problems 195 9 Electrical Instruments and Conditioning 197 Chapter Objectives 197 9.1 Introduction 197 9.2 Instrument Parameters 198 9.2.1 Basic Terms 198 9.3 Transducers 201 9.3.1 Definitions 201 9.3.2 Visual Display Considerations 202 9.3.3 Mechanical Motion to Electrical Transducers 203 9.4 Operational Amplifiers 206 9.4.1 Voltage Amplifiers 206 9.4.2 Current Amplifiers 208 9.4.3 Differential Amplifiers 209 4719.4.4 Converters 209 9.4.5 Buffer Amplifiers 211 9.4.6 Nonlinear Amplifiers 213 9.4.7 Instrument Amplifier 214 9.5 Signal Conditioning 215 9.5.1 Offset Zero 215 9.5.2 Span Adjustment 216 9.5.3 Linearization in Analog Circuits 217 9.5.4 Linearization in Digital Circuits 218 9.5.5 Temperature Correction 219 9.6 Bridge Circuits 219 9.6.1 DC Bridges 219 9.6.2 Current-Balanced Bridge 221 9.6.3 Strain Gauge Sensors 222 9.6.4 AC Bridges 223 9.6.5 Capacitive Sensors 225 9.6.6 Resistance Sensors 226 9.6.7 Magnetic Sensors 227 Summary 228 Problems 228 10 Regulators, Valves, and Actuators 231 Chapter Objectives 231 10.1 Introduction 232 10.2 Pressure Controllers 232 10.2.1 Regulators 232 10.2.2 Safety Valves 235 10.2.3 Level Regulators 235 10.3 Flow Control Actuators 236 10.3.1 Globe Valve 236 10.3.2 Flow Control 238 10.3.3 Butterfly Valve 240 10.3.4 Other Valve Types 241 10.3.5 Valve Characteristics 243 10.3.6 Valve Fail Safe 244 47210.4 Actuators 245 10.4.1 Operation 245 10.4.2 Control Valves 249 10.5 Electronic Devices 249 10.6 Application Considerations 250 10.6.1 Valves 250 Summary 251 Problems 252 11 Process Control 254 Chapter Objectives 254 11.1 Introduction 254 11.2 Basic Terms 255 11.3 Control Modes 256 11.3.1 ON/OFF Action 256 11.3.2 Differential Action 257 11.3.3 Proportional Action 258 11.3.4 Derivative Action 260 11.3.5 Integral Action 261 11.3.6 PID Action 263 11.4 Implementation of Control Loops 265 11.4.1 ON/OFF Action Pneumatic Controller 265 11.4.2 ON/OFF Action Electrical Controller 266 11.4.3 PID Action Pneumatic Controller 268 11.4.4 PID Action Control Circuits 269 11.4.5 PID Electronic Controller 271 11.5 Digital Controllers 274 Summary 275 Problems 276 12 Documentation and Symbol Standards 278 Chapter Objectives 278 12.1 Introduction 278 12.2 System Documentation 279 12.2.1 Manuals 279 12.2.2 Alarm and Trip System Documentation 279 47312.2.3 Safety Documentation 280 12.2.4 PLC Documentation 280 12.2.5 Circuit Diagrams 281 12.2.6 Bussing Information 281 12.3 Pipe and Identification Diagrams 282 12.3.1 Standardization 282 12.3.2 Interconnections 283 12.3.3 Instrument Symbols 285 12.3.4 Instrument Identification 286 12.4 Functional Symbols 288 12.4.1 Actuators 289 12.4.2 Primary Elements 290 12.4.3 Regulators 292 12.4.4 Math Functions 292 12.5 P and ID Drawings 292 Summary 295 Problems 295 13 Signal Transmission 298 Chapter Objectives 298 13.1 Introduction 299 13.2 Pneumatic Transmission 299 13.3 Analog Transmission 300 13.3.1 Noise Considerations 300 13.3.2 Voltage Signals 302 13.3.3 Current Signals 303 13.3.4 Signal Conversion 304 13.3.5 Thermocouples 305 13.3.6 Resistance Temperature Devices 306 13.4 Digital Transmission 307 13.4.1 Transmission Standards 307 13.4.2 Smart Sensors 310 13.4.3 Foundation Fieldbus and Profibus 311 13.5 Digital Signal Converters 313 13.5.1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 313 47413.5.2 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 315 13.6 Telemetry 317 13.6.1 Width Modulation 318 13.6.2 Frequency Shift Modulation 320 Summary 321 Problems 321 14 Logic Gates 324 Chapter Objectives 324 14.1 Introduction 324 14.2 Digital Numbers 325 14.2.1 Converting Binary Numbers to Decimal Numbers 327 14.2.2 Converting from Decimal to Binary 329 14.3 Digital Logic Gates 330 14.3.1 Buffer Gate 330 14.3.2 AND Gate 331 14.3.3 OR Gate 331 14.3.4 NOT Gate 332 14.3.5 Signal Inversion 333 14.3.6 XOR Gates 334 14.3.7 Logic Symbols 334 14.4 Boolean Algebra 335 14.5 Functional Building Blocks 339 Summary 341 Problems 342 15 Programmable Logic Controllers 344 Chapter Objectives 344 15.1 Introduction 344 15.2 Programmable Controller 345 15.3 Controller Operation 347 15.4 Input and Output Modules 348 15.4.1 Discrete Input Modules 349 15.4.2 Analog Input Modules 350 15.4.3 Special Function Input Modules 351 15.4.4 Discrete Output Modules 352 47515.4.5 Analog Output Modules 353 15.4.6 Smart Input and Output Modules 354 15.5 Ladder Diagrams 358 15.5.1 Input and Output Symbols 358 15.5.2 Ladder Layout 360 15.5.3 Ladder Gate Equivalent 361 15.5.4 Ladder Applications 361 Summary 366 Problems 366 16 Motor Control 368 Chapter Objectives 368 16.1 Introduction 368 16.2 Motor Classification 369 16.3 Motor Operation 370 16.3.1 DC Motors 370 16.3.2 AC Motors 373 16.3.3 Single-Phase Motor 374 16.3.4 Three-Phase Motors 375 16.3.5 Universal Motors 377 16.3.6 Stepping Motors 377 16.3.7 Servomotors and Synchro Motors 378 16.4 Motor Ratings 379 16.4.1 Electrical Ratings 380 16.4.2 Control Equipment Ratings 383 16.4.3 Enclosure Standards 383 16.5 Motor Control Applications 384 16.5.1 Two- and Three-Wire Starting 384 16.5.2 Startup Control 385 16.5.3 Wound Rotor Motor 387 16.5.4 Speed Control 387 16.5.5 DC Motor 388 16.5.6 Actuator Control 389 16.5.7 Stepper Motor 390 16.6 Motor Protection 390 476Summary 391 Problems 392 A Units 394 B Thermocouple Tables 399 C References and Information Resources 402 D Abbreviations 406 Glossary 409 Answers to Odd-Numbered Questions 423 Index 442
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