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عدد المساهمات : 19002 التقييم : 35506 تاريخ التسجيل : 01/07/2009 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير منتدى هندسة الإنتاج والتصميم الميكانيكى
| موضوع: كتاب Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures السبت 14 نوفمبر 2020, 10:37 am | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures Second Edition Alan Baker Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Composite Structures, and Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Department of Defenee, Australia Stuart Dutton Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Composite Structures Donald Kelly University of New South Wales
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents Contributors Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview General Drivers for Improved Airframe Materials High-Performance Fiber Composite Concepts Fiber Reinforcements Matrices Polymer Matrix Composites Non-polymeric Composite Systems Hybrid Metal/PMC Composites References Bibliography Chapter 2 Basic Principles of Fiber Composite Materials Introduction to Fiber Composite Systems Micromechanical Versus Macromechanical View of Composites 2.3 Micromechanics 2.4 Elastic Constants 2.5 Micromechanics Approach to Strength 2.6 Simple Estimate of Compressive Strength 2.7 Off-axis Strength in Tension 2.8 Fracture Toughness of Unidirectional Composites References Chapter 3 Fibers for Polymer-Matrix Composites 3.1 Overview 3.2 Glass Fibers 3.3 Carbon Fibers 3.4 Boron Fibers 3.5 Silicon Carbide 3.6 Aramid Fibers 3.7 Orientated Polyethylene Fibers 3.8 Dry Fiber Forms References 79xiv CONTENTS Chapter 4 Polymeric Matrix Materials 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Thermoset and Thermoplastic Polymer Matrix Materials 4.3 Thermosetting Resin Systems 4.4 Thermoplastic Systems References Chapter 5 Component Form and Manufacture 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Outline of General Laminating Procedures 5.3 Laminating Procedures For Aircraft-Grade Composite Components 5.4 Liquid Resin Molding Techniques 5.5 Filament Winding 5.6 Pultrusion 5.7 Process Modelling 5.8 Tooling 5.9 Special Thermoplastic Techniques References Chapter 6 Structural Analysis 6.1 Overview 6.2 Laminate Theory 6.3 Stress Concentration and Edge Effects 6.4 Failure Theories 6.5 Fracture Mechanics 6.6 Failure Prediction Near Stress Raisers and Damage Tolerance 6.7 Buckling 6.8 Summary References Chapter 7 Mechanical Property Measurement 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Coupon Tests 7.3 Laboratory Simulation of Environmental Effects 7.4 Measurement of Residual Strength 7.5 Measurement of Interlaminar Fracture Energy References Chapter 8 Properties of Composite Systems 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Glass-Fiber Composite Systems 8.3 Boron Fiber Composite Systems 8.4 Aramid Fiber Composite Systems 8.5 Carbon Fiber Systems 8.6 Properties of Laminates 262CONTENTS xv Impact Damage Resistance Fatigue of Composite Laminates Environmental Effects References Chapter 9 Joining of Composite Structures Introduction Comparison Between Mechanically Fastened and Adhesively Bonded Joints Adhesively Bonded Joints Mechanically Fastened Joints References Chapter 10 Repair Technology Introduction Assessment of the Need to Repair Classification of Types of Structure Repair Requirements Non-patch Repairs Patch Repairs: General Considerations Bonded Patch Repairs Materials Engineering Aspects Application Technology: In Situ Repairs Bolted Repairs Materials Engineering Aspects References Chapter 11 Quality Assurance 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Quality Control 11.3 Cure Monitoring 11.4 Non-destructive Inspection of Advanced Composite Aerospace Structures 11.5 Conclusion References Chapter 12 Aircraft Applications and Design Issues Overview Applications of Glass-Fiber Composites Current Applications Design Considerations Design of Carbon-Fiber-Based Components Design Methodologies 462xvi CONTENTS 12.7 A Value Engineering Approach to the Use of Composite Materials 12.8 Conclusion References Chapter 13 Airworthiness Considerations For Airframe Structures 13.1 Overview 13.2 Certification of Airframe Structures 13.3 The Development of Design Allowables 13.4 Demonstration of Static Strength 13.5 Demonstration of Fatigue Strength 13.6 Demonstration of Damage Tolerance 13.7 Assessment of the Impact Damage Threat References Chapter 14 Three-Dimensionally Reinforced Preforms and Composites 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Stitching 14.3 Z-Pinning 14.4 Three-Dimensional Weaving 14.5 Braiding 14.6 Knitting 14.7 Non-crimp Fabrics 14.8 Conclusion References Chapter 15 Smart Structures Chapter 16 Introduction Engineering Approaches Selected Applications and Demonstrators Key Technology Needs References Knowledge-Based Engineering, Computer-Aided Design, and Finite Element Analysis 16.1 Knowledge-Based Design Systems 16.2 Finite Element Modelling of Composite Structures 16.3 Finite Element Solution Process 16.4 Element Types 16.5 Finite Element Modelling of Composite Structures 16.6 Implementation 16.7 Design Optimization References 569CONTENTS Appendix Overview of Some Sensors and Actuators Used for Smart Structure Applications A.1 Piezoelectric Materials A.2 Shape Memory Alloys A.3 Optical Fiber Sensors A.4 Electrorheological Fluids A.5 Magnetostrictive Materials A.6 Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems A.7 Comparison Of Actuators References Index Index Accelerated testing, 226 Acoustic emission, 429 Acoustic excitation, 427 Acoustic impact, 430 Acoustic sensing, 417, 427 Acousto-ultrasonics, 429-30, 537 Active fiber composite system, 572 Actuators, 525, 527 smart structure applications, 578-9 Addition polymerization, 83 Adhesive spew, 312-13 Adhesive strength, strength analysis based on, 382-3 Adhesively bonded joints, 63, 290-1,297 adhesive stress/strain behavior models, 298 advantages and disadvantages, 291 classification and applications, 293 complications, 297-8 configuration and analysis of single-lap joint, 301 design/analysis of bonded lap joints, 296-8 design input parameters, 293 double-overlap joint, 305-13 overlap-length, balanced joint, 308 effects of defects in lap joints, 313-14 failure modes, 292-3 fatigue, 328-32 load-carrying, 294 load-transfer mechanisms in overlap joints, 300-5 materials aspects, 319-23 moisture effects on, 332-6 overview, 292-5 properties required, 293-4 scarf joints, 317-19 model for analysis, 320 shear stress/length and shear strain/ length distribution in skin-doubler joint, 303 skin-doubler joint analysis, 302 with stepped ends, 305-6 step-lap joint, 314--17 manufacturing process, 317 stress analysis programs, 297 581 surface treatment, 336 types of joint, 295 Adhesives: B-staged, 391 C-staged, 391 elastic model, 300-3 elastic/plastic model, 303-5 endurance testing, 329 film, 329 forms available, 321-2 fracture behavior, 326 fracture energy, 325-8 paste, 321,391 properties, 328 repair, 390-2 selection, 322-3 shear stress distribution in, 308 shear stress/length distribution in, 307 stress/strain properties, 298, 323-5 structural, 319-21 temperature effects, 331-2 Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) military aircraft, 436 Airbus A300, fin box, 161 Airbus A380, 437 Aircraft applications, 435-47 cobonded blade stiffener, 446 common configurations, 443-7 fiber composite forms, 114 fixed wing civil aircraft, 436-8 fixed wing military aircraft, 438-42 integrally cured blade stiffener, 446 secondary bonded blade stiffener, 446 Aircraft wing covers, 497 Airframe materials: drivers for improved, 3 properties assumed for, 468 weight ratios for, 471 Airframe structures, 1 certification, 480-2 certification tests, 481 growth in use of advanced composites, 2 Airworthiness, 477-89 certification requirements, 479 regulations, 477 use of term, 477 Aligned fiber sheets, 113582 INDEX Aluminum2024 T3, 239-40 tension-tension fatigue results, 252 Aluminum7075 T6, 276 Aluminumalloy, 1, 11,440 crack growth in, 329 patches, 399 strength of, 451 tooling, 158-9 Aluminum/fiber composite hybrid laminate, 19 Aluminummatrix MMCs, 15 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 214, 218, 221-3, 234, 404-5 Amorphous structure, 83 Amorphous thermoplastic, 84 Angle-minus-loaded (AML) ply curve, 459 Anhydride-cured bisphenol A epoxies, 251 Antimony oxide, 98 ARALL, 19-20 Aramid/epoxy pre-preg laminates, 251 Aramid fiber composite systems, 249-57 applications, 250 costs, 241 cutting, drilling and machining, 251 fatigue resistance, 252 impact and ballistic properties, 254-5 manufacturing issues, 251 matrix systems, 251 mechanical properties, 251-3 pressure vessels and containment rings, 256 tensile and compression stress-strain curves, 250 unidirection properties, 240 vibration damping, 255 Aramid fibers, 71 applications, 71 creep rate, 252-3 energy absorption during fracture,71 environmental effects, 253 failure by defibrillation process, 73 moisture absorption, 73 plastic behavior, 71 polymeric structure, 72 short-term creep, 73 stress rupture, 252-3 ultraviolet radiation, 73 Aramid/hybrid composites: open-hole tensile strength, 257 properties of, 256-7 Aromatic rings, 83 Arrhenius-type equation, 152 Aspect ratio, 23 Autoclave, 126 Autoclave cycle, 127 Autoclave molds, 128 processing problems, 128-30 Automated tape layers (ATL), 123 Automated tow placement (ATP), 123 AV8B aircrai~,441 Average stress criterion, 206, 340 Bagging process, 116, 124-5 Ballistic properties, aramid fiber composites, 254-5 Barely visibleimpact damage (BVID), 229, 264, 273, 370-I, 455-8 fatigue strength, 274 fatigue studies, 371 residual strength, 265--6 Bearing/bypass experiments for tension or compression loading, 354 Bearing/bypass interaction under tensile loading, 354 Bearing failure in mechanically fastened joints, 344-5 Bearing strength: function of temperature, 347 vs. clamp-up pressure, 345 BeechcraR Starship, 438, 506 Bending: of orthotropic plate, 190 of simply-supported beam, 189 of symmetric laminates, 188-90 Bending load, 186-90 Bending stiffness, 190 Benzoyl peroxide (BzP), 100 Bird strikes, 458 Bismaleimide resins (BMIs), 9, 87, 103-5 4,4-Bismaleimidodiphenylmethane,104 Bisphenol A-epichorohydrin (DGEBA) resins, 92, 94 Block copolymer, 82 Boeing B777, 437 Bolted joints, 290 advantages and disadvantages, 291 combined with adhesively bonded joints, 365 optimization of load sharing, 357 ply configuration in, 339--40 see also Mechanically fastenedjoints Bolted repairs, 395-8 laminates, 399 Bonded joints, 362, 450 damage growth for, 484 Boron/aluminumcomposite, 14-15 Boron fiber composite systems, 247-9 aircrafi application, 248-9 costs, 241 handling and processing properties, 248 mechanical properties, 248 overview, 247-8 repair material for defective metallic structures, 249 unidirectional properties, 240INDEX 583 Boron fibers, 67-9, 448 anelastic deformation, 69 coating, 69 forms available, 248 manufacture, 68 properties of, 68 Borsic, 69 Boundary layer, 184-5 Braiding, 78, 113-14, 448, 507-15 applications, 512 design of composites, 511 four-step (or row-and-column), 513 manufacturing issues, 510-11 mechanical properties, 511- 12 multi-layer interlock, 513 patterns produced by, 510 research and development, 509-10 three-dimensional applications, 515 architecture, 513 in-plane properties, 514 mechanical properties, 514-15 out-of-plane properties, 515 process, 512-14 two-dimensional process, 508-10 two-step, 513 Braiding machine, 508-9 Branched polymers, 82 Brick elements, 564-5 B-staged epoxy pre-preg, 117-18 Buckling: fibers, 208 laminates, 190, 207-8 specimen, 218 Buckling modes, 44 extensional mode, 42-5 shear mode, 42-5 unidirectional composite, 45 CAD/CAM, 510 Carbon/aluminum alloy composites, 14 Carbon/carbon composites, 13, 18-19 Carbon-epoxy composites, 11 allowable design range, 462 AS4/3501-6, 276 curing, 126 impact energy for, 264 patch repairs, 398 Carbon-epoxy laminates: impact damage, 455 off-axis, 176 polyimide coated fiber in, 533 strength of, 451 Carbon fiber-based components, design considerations, 449-62 Carbon fiber composite systems, 257-61 applications, 257 compression, 260-1 deformation, 261 effect of matrix and fiber/matrix bond strength, 260-1 intra and interlaminar properties, 261 matrix systems, 258 mechanical properties, 257, 259 PAN-based, 257-8 tension, 260-1 unidirectional properties, 240 Carbon fiber/epoxy composites, 1 fatigue-life diagram, 269 rib, 122 tension-tension cycling, 268 Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP), 13 Carbon fiber reinforcements, 258 Carbon fiber tows, 149 Carbon fibers, 6, 14, 448 adhesion, 260 bonding, 260 high modulus (HM, Type I), 63-4 high strength (HS, Type II), 63-4 manufacture, 63-4 PAN-based, 64-6 pitch-based, 66-7 properties of major types, 64 strength and stiffness, 65 strength distribution, 39 structure, 67 surface treatments, 260 Carbon/magnesium alloy composites, 14 Carbon matrices, 12 Carbon nanotubes, 6 Carbonization process, 64-5 Carboxy-terminated butadiene nitrile rubber (CTBN), 96 CATIA V5 software, 550 Ceramic fibers, 56 Ceramic materials, piezoelectric, 571-2 Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), 11-13, 17-19 Chain configurations, 81 Characteristic damage state (CDS), 270 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 6, 12-14, 68-9 Coatings, glass fibers, 62-3 Cocuring: carbon/epoxy wing structure, 129 complex components, 128 concept of, 161 Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 127, 131, 158-9 see also Longitudinal expansion constants; Transverse expansion coefficient Combined countersinking, 132 Combined loading and environmental conditioning, 226584 INDEX Commercial Modelling Systems, 551 Compliance calibration (CC) method, 233-4 Component form and manufacture, 113-69 Composite honeycomb, 115 Composite systems: properties of, 239-87 unidirectional properties of, 240 Composites and metals, critical difference between, 478 Compression: carbon-fiber composites, 260-1 coupon tests, 217-20 Compression after impact (CAI) strength, 229 for stitched and unstitched laminates, 495 Compression fatigue, 273 Compression molding, 116, 167 Compression residual strength for XAS/914C laminate, 275 Compression strength: and damage diameter, 228 simple estimate, 42-5 temperature effect on, 461 Compression testing: failure modes in, 220 fixture for, 231 open-hole, 218 Compressive matrix failure, 197 Computer-aided engineering (CAE), 549, 568-9 Computer modelling, 131 Condensation polyimides, 105 Condensation polymerization, 83 Consolidation model, 155-6 Contiguity concept used for semi-empiricalelasticity solutions, 35 Continuous matrix, 113 Control surface, "hinged" and "hingeless", 543 Copolymer, 82 Core-crashing, 130 Corrosion prevention, 364 Cost estimates for design optimization, 568-9 Cost issues, 1, 3 Cost/performance trade-offs, 467-9 Cost value analysis of weight-saving, 469-74 Costs of high-temperature thermoplastic materials, 447 Countersinking, 361 Coupling agents, 63 Coupon tests, 482 design of program, 227-30 tension, 216-17 variabilities encountered in, 215 Crack bridging, 51 Crack growth: aluminum alloys, 329 direction of, 52 Crack opening modes, 204, 232 Crack propagation, 52 energetic requirement for, 49 mode II, 330 under loading, 329 unidirectional composites, 48-9 Crack turning or splitting, 52 Cracked-lap shear (CLS) specimen, 236 Creep rate, aramid fibers, 252-3 Critical transfer length, 38 Cross-linked polymers, 82 Cross-ply composites, tension fatigue, 270-1 Cross-ply laminates, tensile strength, 262-3 Cross-sectional laminates, 533 Crystalline regions, 83-4 Crystalline thermoplastic, 84 Cumulative damage, Rosen model of, 39-42 Cure monitoring, 408-13 acoustic methods, 411 displacement transducers, 412-13 electrical measurements, 409-10 optical methods, 412 pressure and compaction sensors, 412-13 sensor placement, 408-9 techniques and their performance, 413 thermal properties, 412 Curing process, 83, 125-8 modelling, 152-3 polyester resins, 99-100 see also Cocuring Cutting room, 119-20 Cyanate ester, cross-linked, 107 Cyanate ester monomer, 107 Cyanate resins, 106-7 curing chemistry, 106 properties, 106-7 Cyclic loading, 484 tests, 213 Cyclic phosphine oxide, 98 Damage detection/monitoring, 528, 533-4, 536-7 see also Impact damage Damage diameter and compression strength, 228 Damage effects on design allowables,484 Damage growth, 275-6 bonded joints, 484 due to fatigue, 478, 483-4 prediction, 458 Damage in service: major types, 370 sources of, 369 Damage mitigation, 540-3 Damage tolerance, 204-7, 478-9 demonstration of, 487 effect of stitching, 494INDEX 585 general requirement, 480 improvements, 458-60 laminates, 207, 457 Darcy's law, 140, 153--4 DASH-8 aircrat~, 534 Debagging, 131 Defects during manufacture and service, 228 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 541 Deformation, carbon-fiber composites, 261 Degree of contiguity, 33 Degree of crystallinity, 83-4 Delamination, 185, 194, 232, 264, 275 fracture toughness, 460 injection repairs, 375-7 sources, 452 suppression of, 495-6 Delamination growth, 195 Delamination pattern, 265 Delta wing unmanned aerial vehicles, 543 Design allowables, 227 aircraft structures, 482-4 influence of damage, 484 Design considerations, 447-53 carbon-fiber-based components, 449-62 choice of materials, 447-8 general guidelines, 448-9 Design methodologies, 462-6 Design optimization, 568-9 cost estimates for, 568-9 Design process: automation, 551,568 outline, 464 Design systems: knowledge-based, 549-51 structural component, 551 Destructive tests, 407-8 DGEBA, 92, 94 Diaminodiphenylmethane precursor, 104 Diaphragm forming: in autoclave, 166 in mold, 166 process, 122 thermoplastic composites, 165-6 Dielectric loss factor and cure temperature vs. time, 410 Dielectrometry, 409-10 Diffusion bonding, 11 Diffusion coefficient, 333 Diffusion constant, 279 Diffusion of moisture s e e Moisture diffusion Diluents, 94 Disbond growth under cyclic loading conditions, 330 Disbond propagation, 329 Distortion, 130 process-induced, 156-7 Double-cantilever-beam (DCB) specimens, 233 Drape test, 405 Drill-bit configuration, 132 Drilling, 131-2 Durability allowables, 483 Durability/economic requirement, 480-1 Edge crack torsion test (ECT), mode III, 237 Edge effects, 192-4 Edge-notched flexural specimen, 331 Effective stress concetration factor, 342 E-glass composites, costs, 242 E-glass fibers, 241,435 stress rupture strength of, 246 E-glass laminates, 435 E-glass/vinyl ester knitted composites, 518 E-glass/vinyl ester three-dimensional orthogonal weave, 504 Elastic constants: direct approaches, 33 energy approach, 32-3 mechanics of materials approach, 26-31 theory of elasticity approach, 32-5 Elastic modulus, silicon carbide, 70 Electrical conduction, measurement of, 410-11 Electro-discharge machining (EDM), 578 Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMAT), 424 Electrorheological fluids, 577 Embroidery, 498 producing local, optimized reinforcement, 498 End-loaded split (ELS) specimen, 235-6 End-notched flexure (ENF) specimen, 235-6 Energy release rate, 52 Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU), 297 ENSTAFF, 226 Environmental effects, 460, 478-9, 484-5, 533 aramid fibers, 253 glass-fiber composites, 246-7 laboratory simulation, 225-6 mechanical properties, 276-86 Epoxy-nitrile film adhesives, 328 Epoxy resins, 87-98, 258 additives, 94 advantages and disadvantages, 98 anomalies in behavior, 97 curing, 92-4 flame retardants, 97-8 formulating with, 94 fracture energy, 96 moisture sensitivity, 96-7 properties, 9 pultmsion, 147586 INDEX structural I-beam, 149 thermal resistance, 97-8 toughening, 95 use in aerospace composite matrices, 92 Expansion constants ctUlu and ctU2u, 33-5 Experimental validation, process modelling, 157 Extended airframe life, 530-1 Extensional bending stiffness matrix, 188 Extensional modulus off-axis laminate, 176 F-15 aircraft, 543 F-18 E/F aircraft, 1-2, 440 F-22 aircratL 440 F-35 aircraft, 506 FAA AC 20-107A document, 479 Fabrics: orientations, 151 tensile testing, 404 see also Weaving Failure, in laminates, 194 Failure categories, weight ratio equations for, 470 Failure criterion, 195--6 Failure loci in composites, 326 Failure modes, 86, 325-6 adhesively bonded joints, 292-3 compression testing, 220 cyclic loading, 331-2 mechanically fastened joints, 338 tensile testing, 217 weight-saving as function of, 467-9 Failure prediction: comparison of models, 202-3 near stress raisers, 204-7 Failure strain, lay-up effect on, 459 Failure stresses for circular holes, comparison of predicted and experimental, 206 Failure theories, 194-203 stress-based, 195-9 Fasteners: for composites, 361-2 metallic, 362 non-metallic, 362 Fatigue: adhesively bonded joints, 328-32 damage growth due to, 478, 483-4 Fatigue cycling, 230 Fatigue damage: changes in stiffness and residual strength due to, 272 laminates, 271 Fatigue design allowables, 483-4 Fatigue life, 487 Fatigue-life curves for tension-tension loading, 244 Fatigue-life diagrams, 268-70 Fatigue loading, 230-1 fi'cquency effect, 272-3 mechanically fastened joints loaded holes, 360 open holes, 359-60 thermography, 232 Fatigue performance, 224-5 glass/epoxy composites, 243-4 glass-fiber systems, 243-5 stitched composites, 496 Fatigue resistance: aramid composites, 252 laminates, 266-76 testing, 267 Fatigue strength: alternate load path, 480 and BVID, 274 demonstration of, 486-7 fail-safe approaches, 480 safe life approach, 480 slow crack growth approach, 480 Fatigue studies, BVID, 371 Fatigue tests, 477, 483 full-scale, 486 Fiber architecture, z-direction, 491 Fiber Bragg grating sensor, 534-5, 575-6 Fiber buckling, 208 Fiber bundles, chain of, 40, 43 Fiber composites: basic principles, 23-54 classification, 24 constituents, 23 forms, structure and application, 75-6, 114 macromechanics, 23 micromechanics, 23-6 typical models for exact elasticity solutions, 34 Fiber crimping, 7 Fiber-dominated properties, 461 Fiber debonding, 49, 51 Fiber directions, tailoring, 5 Fiber fractures: ineffective length at break, 41 perturbation of stress in adjacent fiber, 41 vs. fraction of ultimate composite strength, 40 Fiber/matrix bond strength, 38 Fiber/matrix debonding, 38 Fiber/matrix interaction, 38 Fiber/matrix interface, 4, 49 Fiber/matrix stiffness ratio, 267 Fiber orientation, 5, 113, 182 Fiber reinforcement, 6-7, 113 resin flow through, 153-5 Fiber stress, 44 Fiber types: maximum operating temperature, 58-9INDEX 587 mechanical properties, 58-9 vs. specific strength, 56-7 Fiber volume fraction, 36, 56-7, 155-6 Fiber waviness, 144 Fibers: compressive failure, 197 dry forms, 74-9 flaws in, 55, 61 manufacturing processes, 55 microbuckling of, 218 polymer, 56 for polymer-matrix composites, 55-80 testing, 403-4 see also specific fiber types Fickian/non-Fickian diffusion, 278, 333 Fick's first law of diffusion, 278 Fick's second law of diffusion, 278 Fictive temperature, 60 Fighter aircraft: structural breakdown, 469 value indices for, 473 Filament winding, 113-14, 140-5 applications, 144-5 basic machine, 141-2 design and properties of structures, 144 design of mandrels, 142 materials, 142-4 overview, 140 thermoplastics, 143-4, 164 thermosets, 143 winding patterns, 142, 144 Filled-hole tension (FHT), 459 Filler repairs, 374 Fillers, inert, 95 Film adhesives, 321-2 for repair work, 391 Finishes, 63 Finishing, 131 Finite element analysis (FEA), 184, 330, 453, 549, 552 1-D example, 554 element types, 562-3 element types in element library, 561 Finite element modelling (FEM), 171, 481,552-3 basic steps, 554-62 composite structures, 563-6 implementation, 566-7 plate and shell elements, 564-6 wing spoiler, 553 Finite element solution process, 553-62 First invariant strain criterion for matrix failure, 201 First ply failure (FPF), 194-5, 262, 270 Flammability, 479 Flat panel molding, 167 Flaws in fibers, 55, 61 Flexibilizers, 95 Flexible mandrels, 161 Flexure tests, 220-2 four-point bending, 221 three-point bending, 221 Flow control, 541-2 Forming: mapping or kimematic approach, 150-1 mechanics approach, 151 process, 113 process modelling, 150-1 Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR), 97 Fracture behavior: brittle fiber/brittle matrix composite, 50 brittle fiber/ductile matrix composite, 50 Fracture energy: adhesives, 325-8 joint strength estimation based on, 327-8 Fracture energy/area method, 234-5 Fracture mechanics, 49-52, 195, 203-4 design of joints, 327 Fracture mechanics-type lap joint tests, 329 Fracture surface energy, 47-9 Fracture toughness: Mode I, 518 unidirectional composites, 47-52 Full-scale tests, 230-1,485-6 Fusion repairs for thermoplastics, 376 Gating, 135 Gause Error Function, 334 GLARE, 19-20 Glass-ceramic matrices, 12 Glass/epoxy composites: fatigue performance, 243 fatigue performance of, 244 Glass fiber composites, 435--6 costs, 241 environmental effects, 246-7 fatigue performance, 243-5 impact strength, 245 mechanical properties, 241-7 stress effects, 246 tensile strength, 243 unidirectional properties, 240 Young's modulus, 242 Glass fibers: chemical composition, 62 coatings, 62-3 effect of flaws, 61 E-glass, 62 manufacture, 57-61 S-glass, 62 types, 61-2 Glass matrices, 12 Glass/polyester systems: EUlu versus VUfu,29 EU2u versus VUfu,30588 INDEX Glass transition temperature, 84-5, 194, 460 Glassy state, 94 Graft copolymer, 82 Graphite, 63 Graphitisation, 66 Griffith equation, 51 Gurney and Hunt critical strain energy release state, 233 Hardwood, 160 Harrier aircraft, 440 Hashin-Rotem failure criterion, 197 Health and usage monitoring system (HUMS), 528-9 Heat transfer, process modelling, 152-3 Heating/pressure cycles, 127 Helical winding, 142 Helicopters, 443 High modulus polyethylene fibers, 73 High-performancefiber composite concepts, 3-6 Hi-Nicalon, 71 Hole preparation, 362-3 Hole-strengthening procedures, 363-4 Holography, 417, 427 Homopolymer, 82 Honeycomb construction, 115, 445 Honeycomb core, 130 Honeycomb panel, 445 moisture problems, 394 scarf repairs, 385 Honeycomb sandwich structures, 445, 506 Honeycomb structures: external patch repairs, 381 repair, 369, 375 Hot-melt film pre-pregging process, 118 Hot-pressing, 11, 87 Humidity and moisture uptake, 280 Hy-Bor, 248 Hybrid metal/PMC composites, 19-20 Hydrogen bonding, 72 Hydroxyl group reaction, 93 Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute (IITRI) method, 218 Impact damage, 453-7 assessment of threat, 487-8 assumptions, 456 carbon/epoxy laminates, 455 categories, 454-6 effect of stitching, 494 and residual strength, 457 resistance, 263-4 strength loss associated with, 457 XAS/914C laminate, 265 Impact energy: carbon/epoxy composites, 264 dropped tools, 454 vs. residual compression strength, 266 Impact energy absorption of composite and non-composite materials, 246 Impact properties, aramid fiber composites, 254-5 Impact strength of glass-fiber systems, 245 Improved operations, 528-31 In-plane elastic properties, 215 In-plane shear modulus, 23, 31 In-plane stiffness matrix, 179 Inspection, 407-8 Intellectual property (IP), 551 Interracial strength degradation due to moisture absorption, 335--6 Interlaminar failure, 199 Interlaminar fracture energy, measurement of, 231-7 Interlaminar fracture resistance, 232 Interlaminar fracture test: mixed mode, 236 mode I, 233 mode II, 235-6 mode IIl, 237 Interlaminar fracture toughness, area method, 235 Interlaminar shear failure, 198 Interlaminar shear stress, 194, 260 Interlaminar strength, 199 Interlaminar tension, 198 Intermediate forms, 162-3 Interphase, 7 Invar tooling, 159 Iosipescu test, 222 Iron-based matrix, 16 Joining of composite structures, 289-368 adhesively bonded joints, 292-336 design parameters, 290 joint types, 289 multiple load path joints, 290 overview, 289-90 quality control, 290 single load path joints, 289-90 techniques, 1 see also Adhesively bonded joints; Bolted joints; Mechanically fastened joints; Riveted joints Joint Airworthiness Authority (JAA), 456 Joint Airworthiness Committee, 477 Joint Strike Fighter aircrafi, 440, 442 KBE tools, 569 Kevlar fibers, 71-2, 255, 448 physical and mechanical properties, 71 see also Aramid fiberINDEX 589 Kevlar-49, 254 moisture absorption, 73 Kevlar-49/epoxy, tension-tension fatigue results, 252 Kevlar-49/epoxy composites, 249 Kevlar-149, moisture absorption, 73 Kink band formation, 218 Knitting, 515-19 applications, 518-19 in-plane properties, 517-18 mechanical properties, 517-18 out-of-plane properties, 518 structural modelling, 564 weft and warp, 516 Knitting machines, 517 Knockdown factor, 229, 231,464-6 compression residual strength, 465 for tension- and compression-dominated fatigue spectrum loading, 466 Knowledge-based design systems, 549-51 Knowledge-based engineering (KBE), 549-69 application, 550 Kozeny-Carman equation, 156 Kozeny constant, 156 Ladder polymers, 82 Lamina, 171 failure criterion, 198 Laminate axes, 171 for single ply, 174 Laminate codes, 185~5 Laminate stiffness matrix, 177-9 Laminate strength, 215 Laminate thickness, 177, 184 Laminated plates, buckling of, 190 Laminates, 52, 114 bolted repair, 399 buckling, 190, 207-8 compression after impact (CAI) strength for stitched and unstitched, 495 cross-plied, 262 damage tolerance, 207, 457 failure in, 194 fatigue damage, 271 fatigue resistance, 266-76 loaded hole strength, 343 mois~tre problems, 393-4 oahotropic in bending, 188-9 orthotropic ply material for, 564 performance of, 450 properties of, 262-3 quasi-isotropic, 183, 496 SIFT applied to, 202 stitched, 495 stress-based failure theories, 198-9 stress concentration factors, 450 stress-strain law for, 179 subjected to plane stress and bending loads, 186--90 symmetric and non-symmetric eight-ply, 177 tests, 405 with unloaded holes, stress concetrations in, 340-5 Laminating: procedures, 115-32 woven cloth, 113 Laminiates: theory, 172-90 assumptions, 172 Laser beam ultrasound, 424 Laser cutting, 120-1 Lay-up, 171, 181,450 automated, 122-4 effect on failure strain, 459 process, 121 under vacuum, 126 Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), 571 Life extension, 528 Lightning effects, 461-2 Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), 265 Linear molecules, 82 Linear polymers, 82, 84-5 Liquid molding, 113 Load measurement, 216 Load monitoring, 533-4 Load transfer behavior, metals vs. composites, 353 Loaded hole strength of laminates, 343 Lockheed Martin air inlet duct, 506 Longitudinal expansion coefficient, 34 Longitudinal modulus, 23, 26, 32 LSDYNA, 266 Magnetostrictive materials, 577 Major Poisson's ratio, 23, 31 Mandrels, 161-2 Manufacturing defects, 453 Matched-die molding, 116-17 Material axes for single ply, 172 Material behavior, linear and non-linear, 559 Material control, 406-7 Matrix, 7-13, 81 ceramics, 11-13, 17-19 chemical changes, 286 cracking, 194 economic production, 8 functions, 81 manufacture, 9 metals, 10-11, 13-16 polymers, 8-10, 81 softening, 460 toughness, 8590 INDEX Matrix-dominated properties, 81 Matrix equation, 556 Matrix failure envelopes, 202 Matrix materials, 81-112 overview, 87-8 properties of, 91 thermoplastics, 86-8 thermosets, 86-8 see also specific materials Matrix plastic deformation, 49, 51 Mats, 77 Maximum strain failure envelope, 200 Maximum stress theory, 195 MD Explorer, 444 Mechanical properties: environmental effects, 276-86 measurement, 213-38 moisture effect, 282-4 temperature effect, 282-4 see also specific materials Mechanical testing: machines for, 214 objectives, 213 special requirements for composites, 214-15 standardization, 214 types, 213-14 Mechanically fastened joints, 290-1,337-65 allowable strain and joint efficiency for multi-row and single fastener composite joints under tensile loading, 356 allowable stresses, 339 beating failure in, 344-5 combined with adhesively bonded joints, 365 component alignment, 364-5 design considerations, 337-40 design criteria for failure of single-hole joints under static tensile loads, 340-6 double-lap bolted joint used to obtain test data, 341 double-shear joints, 360-1 failure modes, 338 general materials engineering aspects, 361-5 loaded holes, fatigue loading for, 360 multi-row joints, 349-59 open holes, fatigue loading for, 359-60 shear-out failure, 345-6 single fastener joint loading efficiency in compression, 348-9 in tension, 347-8 single-shear joints, 360-1 tension failure in, 342 see also Bolted joints; Joining of composite structures Medium-density fiberboard (MDF), 160 Mesophase (MP) based fibers, 66-7 Metal dies, 168 Metal mandrels, 162 Metal-matrix composites (MMCs), 10-11, 13-16 Metallic honeycomb, 115 Metals and composites, critical difference between, 478 Methylethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), 100 Micro-buckling of fibers, 208, 218 Micro-cracking, 262 Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), 527, 577-8 shear stress sensors, 543 technology, 543-4 Micro-electro-opto-mechanical systems (MEOMS), 527 Micro-Fiber Composite system, 572 Micromechanics: approach to strength, 36--42 finite-element (F-E) approach, 25 mechanics of materials approach, 25 theory of elasticity approach, 25 Micro-sloughing, 147 MIL-HDBK 17, 214-15, 223, 226, 284 Modified beam theory (MBT) method, 234 Modified compliance calibration (MCC) method, 234 Moisture absorption, 277-80, 332-6, 478-9 and relative humidity, 280 Moisture concentration gradient, 278 Moisture conditioning, 225-6 Moisture diffusion, 277-8, 280, 333-5 Moisture effects: on adhesively bonded joints, 332-6 on mechanical properties, 282-4 Moisture exposure, 460-1 Moisture flux, 278 Moisture problems, 393-4 honeycomb panel, 394 laminates, 393-4 Moisture uptake: and humidity, 280 concentration, 279 vs. root time, 278 Molecular chains, 83 Molecular configuration, 82 Molecular weight, 85 Multi-functional structures, 543-4 Multi-layered fabrics, 519 Multi-row joints, 349-59 optimum design, 357-9 Network formation, 83 Nicalon: applications, 71 creep resistance, 71 properties, 70 resistivity, 71INDEX 591 Nickel, electroplated or electroformed tooling, 159 Nickel-titanium alloy, 573 Non-crimp fabrics, 78-9, 519-23 Non-destructive inspection (NDI), 290, 374, 392, 407, 414-30, 486 common defects found, 415 current technologies, 418 emerging technologies, 422-30 miscellaneous techniques, 416-17 optical methods, 427 requirements for quality assurance, 414 see also specific techniques Non-polymeric composite systems, 13-19 Non-woven fabrics, 77 Notch-sensitive and notch-insensitive behavior, 53 Notched/unnotched strength ratio, 206 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 97 Nylon, 72 Occupational health and safety (OH&S) concems, 115 Off-axis laminates, 174-6 Off-Axis tensile shear test, 223 Off-axis tension, 45-7 resolution of forces and areas, 46 Open die molding, 115-16 Open-hole compression (OHC), 459 Open-hole compression strength, 282 effect of temperature and temperature and moisture, 283 Open-hole compression testing, 218 Open-hole knockdown factors, 464 Optical fiber buffer coatings, 574 Optical fiber sensors, 533-4, 574-7 connection systems, 534 Optical fiber systems, earliest uses, 534 Optimization algorithms, 568 Orthotropic laminates, 179-80 moduli of, 180-3 stress analysis, 183-5 stress concentration around holes, 191-2 stress-strain law, 180 Orthotropic material, 173 Orthotropic panel under uniform tension, reference axes for hole in, 205 Orthotropic plate, bending of, 190 Orthotropic ply material for laminates, 564 Orthotropic stress concentration factor, 205 Outdoor exposure, real-time, 280-1 Outer mold line (OML), 158 Painting, 131 PAMFORM, 151 PAMSHOCK, 266 PAN-based carbon-fiber composites, 257-8 PAN fibers, 64-6 Partial impregnation, 163 Particulate MMCs, 16-17 Paste adhesives, 321 two-part, 391 Patch repairs: adhesives, 390-2 basic approaches, 377 bolted, 397-8, 400-1 bonded, 379-90 carbon/epoxy, 398 design approaches, 379-80 external, 380-6 general considerations, 377-9 installation, 399-401 joint configuration, 380 materials, 390-2 modified load path: 2D effects, 384-5 requirements for, 378 scarf, 385-9 titanium alloy, 398-9 vacuum bag assembly for, 395 Patching techniques, 373-4 s e e also Smart patch Peel-strength limitation in double overlap joint, 310-12 Peel stresses, 193-4, 453 methods for alleviating, 312 Phenolic resins, 101-3 advantages and disadvantages, 102-3 cross-linked, 102 pre-polymers, 102 pultrusion, 146-7 Phenylethynyl terminated imide (PETI), 106 Photoelastic fringe patterns, 542 Piezoelectric ceramic actuators, 539-40 Piezoelectric ceramic sensor, 538 Piezoelectric materials, 571-2 Piezoelectric properties, 572 Piezoelectric sensor network, 539 Piezotransducers, 536-7 stress-wave concept, 536-7 Pitch-based fibers, 66-7 properties, 67 Plane stress, 186-90 symmetric laminates, 176-86 Ply-by-ply model, 389 Ply configuration, 6, 331,449 in bolted joints, 339-40 Ply coordinates in thickness direction, 178 Ply orientations, 182 Ply/ply interface, 272 Ply stack for wing rib, 120 Ply strain compatibility, 193 PMR-15, 105, 107 Point strain, 465 Point stress criterion, 206, 341592 INDEX Poisson's ratio, 23, 31, 173, 180, 183, 192, 216, 267 Polar winding, 142 Polyacrylonitriles e e PAN Polyaryl sulfone (PAS), 111 Polycarbonsilanepolymer, 70 Polyester resins, 98-100 advantages and disadvantages, 100 curing, 99-100 fire retardant formulations, 99 initiators, 100 pultrusion, 146 types, 99 unsaturated, 98 Polyether sulfone (PES), 111 Polyetheretherketone(PEEK), 9, 20, 87, 109, 251,258, 447 molecular structure, 109 Polyetherimide (PEI), 112, 115, 447 Polyetherketone (PEK), 9, 87, 109 Polyetherketoneketone(PEKK), 109 Polyethylenefibers, 73-4 high toughness, 74 oriented, 73-4 temperature limitations, 73 tensile properties, 73 Polyfluoroethylene(PTFE) film, 235 Polyimide, 9 Polyimide coated fiber in carbon/epoxy laminate, 533 Polyimide resins, 104--6 advantages and disadvantages, 106 matrices, 87, 105 molecular structure, 111-12 Polyketones, 109 Polymer branching, 82 Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), 13 embedded approach, 527 properties, 81 resistance to interlaminar fracture, 231 Polymeric materials: mechanical properties, 83-6 overview, 81-3 structure, 83-6 Polymerizablemonomeric reactant (PMR) type polyimides, 105 Polymerizationprocess, 83 Polymethacrylimide(PMI) polyimide foams, 115 Poly pam-phenylene terphalamide (PPD-T), 72 Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS), 109-10, 258, 447 Polysulfone (PSU), 111, 251 Polyurethane modelling board, 160 Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 62-3 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 115 Post-buckling performance, 566-7 Potting repairs, 374 Precursors, 56, 83 preforms, 7 permeability, 134 Premier 1 fuselage, 438 Pre-preg, 87, 113 chemical tests, 405 cutting and knitting, 119-21 dispensing machines, 115 materials, 158, 392 production, 118-19 tests, 404 thickness for unidirectional materials, 119 transport and storage, 119 Pre-preg stacks, automated forming, 121-2 Primary Adhesively Bonded Structure Technology (PABST)program, 294 Primary amine-epoxy reaction, 93 Primers, 63 Process control, 407 Process modelling, 149-57 advanced composites, 150 curing, 152-3 experimental validation, 157 forming, 150-1 heat transfer, 152-3 overview, 149-50 pultrusion, 153 reinforcement stacks, 150-1 residual stress, 156-7 Process verification, 406-7 Processors, 525, 527 Proof tests, 486 PTFE film, 235 Pull-out, 49, 51 Pultrosion, 113-14, 145-9 applications, 149 docking system, 148-9 epoxy resins, 147 in-feed system, 147 key stages, 147 overview, 145-6 phenolic resins, 146-7 polyester resin, 146 process modelling, 153 pulling system, 148-9 reinforcements, 146 thermal equilibrium, 148 thermoplastics, 165 thermosets, 165 tooling system, 147-8 transient time, 147 Pultrusion Dynamics Technology Center, 148 PVDF polymer films, 572 Quality assurance, 403-33 Quality control, 403-8 raw materials, 403-6 Quasi-isotropic laminates, 183, 496INDEX 593 R ratio, 267, 273 Race-tracking, 135, 137 Radiography, 416, 422 real time, 424 Rail shear test, 222 Random copolymer, 82 Ratio of joint strength to basic laminate strength vs. ratio of bolt diameter to strip width, 343 Reduced stiffness coefficients, 173 Regular copolymer, 82 Reinforcement: consolidation of, 155-6 materials, 448 pultrusion, 146 Reinforcement stacks, process modelling, 150-1 Relative humidity and moisture absorption, 280 Repair: application technology, 394-5 assessment, 369--71 classification of types of structure, 371 in situ, 394-5 joint preparation, 392-3 materials engineering aspects, 390--4, 398-401 non-patch, 373-7 requirements, 371-3 see also Patch repairs Repair levels, 372-3 Repair options, flow diagram, 373 Repair procedures: for major damage, 374 non-patch repair for minor damage, 373 Repair technology, 369--402 Residual compression strength vs. impact energy, 266 Residual strength, 456-7 and BVID, 265-6 function of spectrum cycles, 276 and impact damage, 457 improving, 494 measurement of, 227 reduction under spectrum loading, 275 testing, 230 Residual stress, process modelling, 156-7 Resin content, 405 Resin film infusion (RFI), 87, 137-8, 497 applications, 137-8 tooling, 158 Resin flow through fiber reinforcement, 153-5 Resin injection repairs, 375 Resin molding techniques, 132-40 Resin pressure equation, 155-6 Resin transfer molding (RTM) process, 87, 102, 105-6, 132, 440, 459, 492 advantages, 135-6 applications, 135-7 complex hollow section, 136 fiber-wash, 133 gating arrangements, 135 high injection pressures, 133 isothermal dynamic viscosity curves, 134 materials systems, 133-4 pot-life, 133 preforms, 133 rectilinear mold, 139-40 sequential predicted flow fronts, 155 tooling, 134-5, 158 vacuum-assisted, 138 Resins, 83 testing, 404 Rigid rings, 83 Riveted joints, 290, 362 design detail, 550 Robot-drilling, 132 Robotic CNC filament winders, 142 Robotic painting, 131 Rod and beam elements, 565-6 Roll-forming, 164 Rosen model of cumulative damage, 39-42 Rotorcrafi applications, 443 Routing, 132 Rovings, 74 Royal Aircratt Factory, 477 Rubber, 84 Rubber bladder expansion, 129 Rubber die, 168 Rubbery state, 94, 100 Rule-of-mixtures prediction, 37 Rule-of-mixtures relationship, 26 Safety factor, 477 Saint-Venant principle, 184 Sample cross-section and strength distribution, 56 Sandwich construction, 114, 222 Scale effects, 215 Scarf repairs, 385-9 failure of loads and strains for carbon/ epoxy, 388 honeycomb panel, 385 shear stress distribution, 389 vacuum bag, 396 Second deviatoric strain criterion, 201-2 Secondary amine-epoxy reaction, 93 Self-healing, 18 Self-similar propagation, 52 Sensors, 525, 527 Sewing machine, 492 S-glass, tension-tension fatigue results, 252 S-glass composites, 241,436 costs, 242594 INDEX S2 glass, 436 Shape adaptive structures, 541-2 Shape memory alloys (SMA), 540-3, 573-4 Shape memory effect, 573 Shaped panel molding, 167 Shear modulus, 182 Shear-out failure in mechanically fastened joints, 345-6 Shear stress, 193 parallel to fibers, 46 Shear stress distribution: in adhesive, 308 scarf repairs, 389 Shear stress/length distribution in adhesives, 307 Shear testing, 222-3 Shearography, 417, 427 Shimming, 364-5 SIFT, 200-1 applied to laminates, 202 failure envelope for polymeric materials, 204 matrix failure envelope, 203 Silica fiber/aluminum matrix composite, 12 Silica fiber-reinforced aluminum, 11 Silicon carbide: coatings, 18 elastic modulus, 70 Silicon carbide fibers, 69-71 based on polymeric precursor, 70-1 chemical compatibility, 70 CVD-based, 69-70 manufacture, 70 Silicon nitride coatings, 18 Silicon robber bladder, 117 Simply-supported beam, bending of, 189 Single ply, 171 laminate axes, 174 material axes, 172 modulus data, 181 Six-axis robots, 132 Skin-doubler specimen, 538 Smart behavior of biological structures, 525 SMART layers, 537, 539 Smart patch, 531-3 concept, 531-2 monitoring, 532-3 objectives, 531 Smart structures, 525-47 active, 539-43 actuator properties, 578-9 components, 526 engineering analogies, 527 engineering approaches, 526-31 key technology needs, 544-5 potential applications, 528 selected applications and demonstrators, 531-44 Smart Wing Program, 541-2 S-N curve, 267, 269-70 Solvent resistance, 84 Specimen buckling, 218 Specimen impactor, 230 Splitting in curved beam, 199 Stamp-forming, 167-8 dies, 168 Starch, 62 Static strength, 449, 465, 480 demonstration of, 484-6 design, 481 predictions, 207 vs. clamp-up torque for single-hole joint, 346 Static strength allowables, 482-3 A-allowable, 482-3 B-allowable, 482-3 Static tests, 213 Steel tooling, 159 Stiffened panels, external patch repairs, 381 Stiffener separation, 195, 566-7 Stiffness, 4, 7, 84 Stiffness analysis, 383--4 Stiffness imbalance in double-overlap joint, 309 Stiffness matrix, uncoupling, 188 Stiffness reduction method, 198 Stitching, 492-8 applications, 497 in-plane properties, 495 mechanical properties, 493-7 modified, 498 out-of-plane properties, 493-4 vs. z-pinning, 501-2 Strain-based failure theory, 199-202 for fiber failure in tension, 199 Strain compatibility, 44 Strain energy release rate, 235, 237, 329-30 mode I, 234-5 Strain Invariant Failure Theory s e e SIFT Strain response, open-loop and closed-loop, 541 Strain values, 465 Strands, tensile testing, 404 Strength analysis based on adhesive strength, 382-3 Strength distribution and sample cross-section, 56 Strength reduction data, 206 Stress analysis: bonded joints, 297 orthotropic laminates, 183-5 Stress-based failure theories, 195-9 failure modes, 196-8 laminates, 198-9 Stress concentration, 191,271-2 circular hole in infinite tension panel, 192INDEX 595 holes in orthotropic laminates, 191-2 laminates with unloaded holes, 340-5 Stress concentration factor (SCF), 191 circular hole in tension panel, 192 laminates, 450 Stress distribution, 184 in doublers with scarfed stepped skin ends, 305 Stress effects, 285 glass-fiber composites, 246 Stress failure envelopes for unidirectional carbon fiber, 197 Stress function, 183-4 Stress intensity factor K, 49 Stress raisers, failure prediction near, 204-7 Stress relaxation, 49, 51 Stress resultants, 178, 187 Stress rupture, aramid fibers, 252-3 Stress rupture strength, E-glass fibers, 246 Stress/strain properties, adhesives, 298, 323-5 Stress-strain law, 171 laminates, 179 orthotropic laminate, 180 orthotropic material, 173 single ply in laminate axes, off-axis laminates, 174-6 Stress-strain law, single ply in material axes, unidirectional laminates, 172-4 Stress testing, 85 Structural analysis, 171-211 Structural behavior, linear and non-linear, 560 Structural detail tests, 482, 485 Structural health monitoring (SHM), 529-37 Structural reaction injection molding (SRIM), 155 Sub-component tests, 484-5 Suppliers of Advanced Composite Materials Association (SACMA), 214, 218, 405 Surface blemishes, 131 Surface ply orientation, 331 Surface porosity, 130 Surface treatment: adhesive bonding, 336 pre-bonding, 393 Surfacing resin film, 130 Swelling strains, 285 Symmetric laminates: bending of, 188-90 plane stress problems for, 176-86 Tack test, 405 Tapes, 79 Temperature effect, 284-5, 460-1 on adhesives, 331-2 on compression strength, 461 on mechanical properties, 282-4 on weight-gain profile, 281 Tensile failure: mechanically fastened joints, 342 modes, 42 Tensile matrix failure, 197 Tensile strength: cross-ply laminates, 262-3 effect of temperature and temperature and moisture, 283 simple estimate, 36 statistical analysis, 38 Tensile stress: normal to fibers, 46 parallel to fibers, 46 Tensile testing, failure modes in, 217 Tension, carbon-fiber composites, 260-1 Tension/compression fatigue, 273 Tension fatigue of cross-ply composites, 270-1 Tension-tension fatigue properties, 267-70 Terbium-iron alloys, 577 Testing Pyramid, 215 Tetrachlorophthalic anhydride, 99 Tetraglycidyl derivative of diaminodiphenyl methane, 88, 92, 94, 97 Tetra-oxirane ring, 98 Textile preforming techniques, 79, 460 Textile technology, 7 Textron Speciality Materials, 248 Thermal expansion mismatch: in double-overlap joint, 309-10 in scarfjoints, 319 Thermal spiking, 97, 284-5 Thermography, 417, 424-6 fatigue loaded specimens, 232 Thermoplastic matrices, 447 materials used in aerospace composites, 90 Thermoplastic polymers, 9 Thermoplastics, 83, 108-12 aerospace-grade, 88 amorphous, 108 fabrication, 87 filament winding, 143-4 fusion repairs, 376 intermediate material forms, 162-3 matrix materials, 86-8 processing technology, 163-8 properties, 86-8 semi-crystalline, 108-9 special techniques, 162-8 sulphur-containing, 110 see also specific materials Thermosets, 9, 83-4 matrices, 478 matrix materials, 86-9 properties, 86 see also specific materials Thermosetting resins, 88-107 filament winding, 143 properties, 87596 INDEX Three-dimensional textile manufacturing techniques, 492 Three-dimensional woven carbon--carbon preforms, 505 Three-dimensionally reinforced preforms and composites, 491-524 overview, 491-2 Through-thickness failure, 195, 198-9 Through-thickness strength, 451-3 Time-temperature-transformation diagram, 94-5 Titanium alloy, 1, 20, 239-40, 440 MMCs, 15 patch repairs, 398-9 Titanium aluminide MMCs, 15 Tooling, 158-62 ACG "Toolbrace", 162 airpad brand inflatable, 161 closed-mold, 158 composite materials, 159-61 materials selection, 158 metallic materials, 158-9 open-mold, 158 Top-hat stiffened component, 117 Toughening agents, 95 Toughness, 4 Tow placement, 113-14 Tows, 74, 149 Transverse expansion coefficient, 34-5 Transverse failure, 194 Transverse modulus, 23, 32 Triglycidyl derivative of p-aminophenol (TGAP), 88, 92, 94 Trimming, 131-2 Tsai-Hill criterion, 340 Tsai-Hill theory, 195 Tsai-Wu Theory, 196 Tungsten alloy wires, 16 Ultimate failure, 194 Ultrasonic insertion gun, 500 Ultrasonic inspection, 416, 419-22 non-contact, 424-5 Ultrasonic vibrator method of z-pinning, 500 Ultraviolet damage, 285 Unidirectional composites: buckling mode, 45 crack propagation, 48-9 failure modes, 45 fracture toughness, 47-52 properties of, 240 tensile strength vs. orientation, 47 Unidirectional laminates, 172-4 Unidirectional ply, model and representative volume element, 27 Ureol tooling, 160 U.S. Department of Defense Military Handbook see MIL-HDBK 17 U.S. Federal Aviation Authority (FAA), 479 U.S. Navy (USN), 477-8 USAF B-2 bomber, 438 V-22 tiltrotor, 443 Vacuum-assisted RTM (VARTM), 102, 138 Vacuum bag: lay-up, 125 scarf repair, 396 Vacuum bag assembly for patch repairs, 395 Vacuum bag resin infusion (VBRI), 158 Value engineering, 466-74 Value indices for fighter aircratt, 473 Van der Waals bonding, 63 Vibration damping, aramid fiber composites, 255 Vinyl ester resins, 101,251 formation, 101 Visible impact damage (VID), 455 Voids, formation, 129 Von Mises yield criterion, 195-6 Weaving, 7, 448 structural modelling, 564 three-dimensional, 502-5 applications, 506-7 architectures, 503 in-plane properties, 505-6 mechanical properties, 505-6 out-of-plane properties, 506 see also Woven fabrics Weibull distribution, 39 Weibull statistics, 55 Weight changes for unpainted composite coupons, 281 Weight-gain profile, temperature effect on, 281 Weight ratio: airframe materials, 471 equations for failure categories, 470 Weight saving: cost value analysis, 469-74 function of failure mode, 467-9 through increased specific strength or stiffness, 3 Wet laminating procedures, 116 Wet-winding procedure, 141 Whirling winding, 142 Whiskers, 6-7 World War I, 477 World War II, 435 Woven carbon/epoxy composites, effect of impact energy on compressive strength of two-dimensional and three-dimensional, 507INDEX 597 Woven fabrics, 77-8 Wrapping, 117 XAS/914C laminate: compression residual strength, 275 impact damage, 265 X-ray probe, 425 Yams, 74-7, 113, 492 tensile testing, 404 three-dimensional weaving, 503 z-direction, 503 Yield stress, 478 Young's modulus, 65-7, 173, 176, 180, 183 glass-fiber composite, 242 and temperature, 85 Z-pinning, 498-502 foam method, 499 mechanical properties, 501 process, 499 ultrasonic vibrator method, 500 vs. stitching, 501-2 Z-reinforcement, stitches for, 49
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