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| موضوع: كتاب Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics السبت 17 مارس 2018, 9:17 pm | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics Raymond A. Serway Emeritus, James Madison University John W. Jewett, Jr. Emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona With contributions from Vahé Peroomian University of Southern California
و المحتوى كما يلي :
contents About the Authors x Preface xi To the Student xxvi P a R T 1 Mechanics 1 1 Physics and Measurement 2 1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time 3 1.2 Modeling and Alternative Representations 6 1.3 Dimensional Analysis 10 1.4 Conversion of Units 12 1.5 Estimates and Order-of-Magnitude Calculations 12 1.6 Significant Figures 13 2 Motion in one dimension 20 2.1 Position, Velocity, and Speed of a Particle 21 2.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 24 2.3 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant Velocity 27 2.4 The Analysis Model Approach to Problem Solving 30 2.5 Acceleration 32 2.6 Motion Diagrams 36 2.7 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant Acceleration 37 2.8 Freely Falling Objects 41 2.9 Kinematic Equations Derived from Calculus 44 3 Vectors 52 3.1 Coordinate Systems 53 3.2 Vector and Scalar Quantities 54 3.3 Basic Vector Arithmetic 55 3.4 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors 58 4 Motion in two dimensions 68 4.1 The Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors 69 4.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration 71 4.3 Projectile Motion 74 4.4 Analysis Model: Particle in Uniform Circular Motion 81 4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration 84 4.6 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration 85 5 the Laws of Motion 95 5.1 The Concept of Force 96 5.2 Newton’s First Law and Inertial Frames 97 5.3 Mass 99 5.4 Newton’s Second Law 99 5.5 The Gravitational Force and Weight 102 5.6 Newton’s Third Law 103 5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law 105 5.8 Forces of Friction 114 6 Circular Motion and other Applications of newton’s Laws 127 6.1 Extending the Particle in Uniform Circular Motion Model 128 6.2 Nonuniform Circular Motion 133 6.3 Motion in Accelerated Frames 135 6.4 Motion in the Presence of Resistive Forces 138 7 Energy of a System 150 7.1 Systems and Environments 151 7.2 Work Done by a Constant Force 151 7.3 The Scalar Product of Two Vectors 154 7.4 Work Done by a Varying Force 156 7.5 Kinetic Energy and the Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem 161 7.6 Potential Energy of a System 165 7.7 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 169 7.8 Relationship Between Conservative Forces and Potential Energy 171 7.9 Energy Diagrams and Equilibrium of a System 173 8 Conservation of Energy 181 8.1 Analysis Model: Nonisolated System (Energy) 182 8.2 Analysis Model: Isolated System (Energy) 185 8.3 Situations Involving Kinetic Friction 191 8.4 Changes in Mechanical Energy for Nonconservative Forces 196 8.5 Power 200 9 Linear Momentum and Collisions 210 9.1 Linear Momentum 211 9.2 Analysis Model: Isolated System (Momentum) 213 9.3 Analysis Model: Nonisolated System (Momentum) 215 9.4 Collisions in One Dimension 219 9.5 Collisions in Two Dimensions 227 vP a R T 2 oscillations and Mechanical Waves 385 15 oscillatory Motion 386 15.1 Motion of an Object Attached to a Spring 387 15.2 Analysis Model: Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion 388 15.3 Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator 394 15.4 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Uniform Circular Motion 398 15.5 The Pendulum 400 15.6 Damped Oscillations 404 15.7 Forced Oscillations 405 16 Wave Motion 415 16.1 Propagation of a Disturbance 416 16.2 Analysis Model: Traveling Wave 419 16.3 The Speed of Waves on Strings 423 16.4 Rate of Energy Transfer by Sinusoidal Waves on Strings 426 16.5 The Linear Wave Equation 428 16.6 Sound Waves 429 16.7 Speed of Sound Waves 431 16.8 Intensity of Sound Waves 433 16.9 The Doppler Effect 438 17 Superposition and Standing Waves 451 17.1 Analysis Model: Waves in Interference 452 17.2 Standing Waves 456 17.3 Boundary Effects: Reflection and Transmission 459 17.4 Analysis Model: Waves Under Boundary Conditions 461 17.5 Resonance 465 17.6 Standing Waves in Air Columns 466 17.7 Beats: Interference in Time 469 17.8 Nonsinusoidal Waveforms 472 P a R T 3 thermodynamics 481 18 temperature 482 18.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 483 18.2 Thermometers and the Celsius Temperature Scale 484 18.3 The Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer and the Absolute Temperature Scale 485 18.4 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 488 18.5 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas 492 9.6 The Center of Mass 230 9.7 Systems of Many Particles 234 9.8 Deformable Systems 237 9.9 Rocket Propulsion 239 10 Rotation of a Rigid object About a Fixed Axis 249 10.1 Angular Position, Velocity, and Acceleration 250 10.2 Analysis Model: Rigid Object Under Constant Angular Acceleration 252 10.3 Angular and Translational Quantities 254 10.4 Torque 257 10.5 Analysis Model: Rigid Object Under a Net Torque 259 10.6 Calculation of Moments of Inertia 263 10.7 Rotational Kinetic Energy 267 10.8 Energy Considerations in Rotational Motion 269 10.9 Rolling Motion of a Rigid Object 272 11 Angular Momentum 285 11.1 The Vector Product and Torque 286 11.2 Analysis Model: Nonisolated System (Angular Momentum) 288 11.3 Angular Momentum of a Rotating Rigid Object 293 11.4 Analysis Model: Isolated System (Angular Momentum) 295 11.5 The Motion of Gyroscopes and Tops 301 12 Static Equilibrium and Elasticity 310 12.1 Analysis Model: Rigid Object in Equilibrium 311 12.2 More on the Center of Gravity 312 12.3 Examples of Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium 313 12.4 Elastic Properties of Solids 319 13 Universal Gravitation 332 13.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 333 13.2 Free-Fall Acceleration and the Gravitational Force 335 13.3 Analysis Model: Particle in a Field (Gravitational) 336 13.4 Kepler’s Laws and the Motion of Planets 339 13.5 Gravitational Potential Energy 345 13.6 Energy Considerations in Planetary and Satellite Motion 347 14 Fluid Mechanics 358 14.1 Pressure 359 14.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth 360 14.3 Pressure Measurements 364 14.4 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’s Principle 365 14.5 Fluid Dynamics 368 14.6 Bernoulli’s Equation 371 14.7 Flow of Viscous Fluids in Pipes 375 14.8 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics 377 vi Contents24.3 Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due to Point Charges 642 24.4 Obtaining the Value of the Electric Field from the Electric Potential 645 24.5 Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions 646 24.6 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium 651 25 Capacitance and dielectrics 663 25.1 Definition of Capacitance 664 25.2 Calculating Capacitance 665 25.3 Combinations of Capacitors 668 25.4 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 672 25.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics 676 25.6 Electric Dipole in an Electric Field 678 25.7 An Atomic Description of Dielectrics 681 26 Current and Resistance 691 26.1 Electric Current 692 26.2 Resistance 694 26.3 A Model for Electrical Conduction 699 26.4 Resistance and Temperature 701 26.5 Superconductors 702 26.6 Electrical Power 703 27 direct-Current Circuits 713 27.1 Electromotive Force 714 27.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel 716 27.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules 723 27.4 RC Circuits 726 27.5 Household Wiring and Electrical Safety 732 28 Magnetic Fields 742 28.1 Analysis Model: Particle in a Field (Magnetic) 743 28.2 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field 748 28.3 Applications Involving Charged Particles Moving in a Magnetic Field 752 28.4 Magnetic Force Acting on a CurrentCarrying Conductor 755 28.5 Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field 757 28.6 The Hall Effect 761 29 Sources of the Magnetic Field 771 29.1 The Biot–Savart Law 772 29.2 The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors 777 29.3 Ampère’s Law 779 29.4 The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid 782 29.5 Gauss’s Law in Magnetism 784 29.6 Magnetism in Matter 786 30 Faraday’s Law 797 30.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction 798 30.2 Motional emf 801 30.3 Lenz’s Law 805 19 the First Law of thermodynamics 501 19.1 Heat and Internal Energy 502 19.2 Specific Heat and Calorimetry 505 19.3 Latent Heat 509 19.4 Work in Thermodynamic Processes 513 19.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 514 19.6 Energy Transfer Mechanisms in Thermal Processes 518 20 the Kinetic theory of Gases 533 20.1 Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas 534 20.2 Molar Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas 539 20.3 The Equipartition of Energy 542 20.4 Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas 545 20.5 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 547 21 Heat Engines, Entropy, and the Second Law of thermodynamics 556 21.1 Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 557 21.2 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 559 21.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 562 21.4 The Carnot Engine 563 21.5 Gasoline and Diesel Engines 567 21.6 Entropy 570 21.7 Entropy in Thermodynamic Systems 572 21.8 Entropy and the Second Law 578 P a R T 4 Electricity and Magnetism 587 22 Electric Fields 588 22.1 Properties of Electric Charges 589 22.2 Charging Objects by Induction 591 22.3 Coulomb’s Law 593 22.4 Analysis Model: Particle in a Field (Electric) 598 22.5 Electric Field Lines 603 22.6 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field 605 23 Continuous Charge distributions and Gauss’s Law 615 23.1 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution 616 23.2 Electric Flux 620 23.3 Gauss’s Law 623 23.4 Application of Gauss’s Law to Various Charge Distributions 625 24 Electric Potential 636 24.1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference 637 24.2 Potential Difference in a Uniform Electric Field 639 Contents vii36 Wave optics 962 36.1 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment 963 36.2 Analysis Model: Waves in Interference 965 36.3 Intensity Distribution of the Double-Slit Interference Pattern 968 36.4 Change of Phase Due to Reflection 969 36.5 Interference in Thin Films 970 36.6 The Michelson Interferometer 973 37 diffraction Patterns and Polarization 983 37.1 Introduction to Diffraction Patterns 984 37.2 Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits 985 37.3 Resolution of Single-Slit and Circular Apertures 988 37.4 The Diffraction Grating 992 37.5 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals 996 37.6 Polarization of Light Waves 998 P a R T 6 Modern Physics 1011 38 Relativity 1012 38.1 The Principle of Galilean Relativity 1013 38.2 The Michelson–Morley Experiment 1016 38.3 Einstein’s Principle of Relativity 1018 38.4 Consequences of the Special Theory of Relativity 1019 38.5 The Lorentz Transformation Equations 1030 38.6 The Lorentz Velocity Transformation Equations 1031 38.7 Relativistic Linear Momentum 1034 38.8 Relativistic Energy 1035 38.9 The General Theory of Relativity 1039 39 introduction to Quantum Physics 1048 39.1 Blackbody Radiation and Planck’s Hypothesis 1049 39.2 The Photoelectric Effect 1055 39.3 The Compton Effect 1061 39.4 The Nature of Electromagnetic Waves 1063 39.5 The Wave Properties of Particles 1064 39.6 A New Model: The Quantum Particle 1067 39.7 The Double-Slit Experiment Revisited 1070 39.8 The Uncertainty Principle 1071 40 Quantum Mechanics 1079 40.1 The Wave Function 1079 40.2 Analysis Model: Quantum Particle Under Boundary Conditions 1084 40.3 The Schrödinger Equation 1089 40.4 A Particle in a Well of Finite Height 1091 40.5 Tunneling Through a Potential Energy Barrier 1093 40.6 Applications of Tunneling 1095 40.7 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 1096 30.4 The General Form of Faraday’s Law 808 30.5 Generators and Motors 810 30.6 Eddy Currents 814 31 inductance 824 31.1 Self-Induction and Inductance 825 31.2 RL Circuits 827 31.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field 830 31.4 Mutual Inductance 832 31.5 Oscillations in an LC Circuit 834 31.6 The RLC Circuit 837 32 Alternating-Current Circuits 847 32.1 AC Sources 848 32.2 Resistors in an AC Circuit 848 32.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit 851 32.4 Capacitors in an AC Circuit 854 32.5 The RLC Series Circuit 856 32.6 Power in an AC Circuit 859 32.7 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit 861 32.8 The Transformer and Power Transmission 863 33 Electromagnetic Waves 873 33.1 Displacement Current and the General Form of Ampère’s Law 874 33.2 Maxwell’s Equations and Hertz’s Discoveries 876 33.3 Plane Electromagnetic Waves 878 33.4 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves 882 33.5 Momentum and Radiation Pressure 884 33.6 Production of Electromagnetic Waves by an Antenna 886 33.7 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves 887 P a R T 5 Light and optics 897 34 the nature of Light and the Principles of Ray optics 898 34.1 The Nature of Light 899 34.2 The Ray Approximation in Ray Optics 901 34.3 Analysis Model: Wave Under Reflection 902 34.4 Analysis Model: Wave Under Refraction 905 34.5 Huygens’s Principle 911 34.6 Dispersion 912 34.7 Total Internal Reflection 914 35 image Formation 925 35.1 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors 926 35.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors 928 35.3 Images Formed by Refraction 935 35.4 Images Formed by Thin Lenses 939 35.5 Lens Aberrations 947 35.6 Optical Instruments 947 viii Contents44.2 Positrons and Other Antiparticles 1227 44.3 Mesons and the Beginning of Particle Physics 1229 44.4 Classification of Particles 1231 44.5 Conservation Laws 1233 44.6 Strange Particles and Strangeness 1236 44.7 Finding Patterns in the Particles 1238 44.8 Quarks 1240 44.9 Multicolored Quarks 1242 44.10 The Standard Model 1244 44.11 The Cosmic Connection 1246 44.12 Problems and Perspectives 1251 Appendices A tables A-1 Table A.1 Conversion Factors A-1 Table A.2 Symbols, Dimensions, and Units of Physical Quantities A-2 B Mathematics Review A-4 B.1 Scientific Notation A-4 B.2 Algebra A-5 B.3 Geometry A-10 B.4 Trigonometry A-11 B.5 Series Expansions A-13 B.6 Differential Calculus A-13 B.7 Integral Calculus A-16 B.8 Propagation of Uncertainty A-20 C Periodic table of the Elements A-22 D Si Units A-24 D.1 SI Units A-24 D.2 Some Derived SI Units A-24 Answers to Quick Quizzes and odd-numbered Problems A-25 index i-1 41 Atomic Physics 1105 41.1 Atomic Spectra of Gases 1106 41.2 Early Models of the Atom 1107 41.3 Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom 1109 41.4 The Quantum Model of the Hydrogen Atom 1114 41.5 The Wave Functions for Hydrogen 1117 41.6 Physical Interpretation of the Quantum Numbers 1120 41.7 The Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table 1126 41.8 More on Atomic Spectra: Visible and X-Ray 1130 41.9 Spontaneous and Stimulated Transitions 1133 41.10 Lasers 1135 42 Molecules and Solids 1144 42.1 Molecular Bonds 1145 42.2 Energy States and Spectra of Molecules 1148 42.3 Bonding in Solids 1156 42.4 Free-Electron Theory of Metals 1158 42.5 Band Theory of Solids 1160 42.6 Electrical Conduction in Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors 1162 42.7 Semiconductor Devices 1165 43 nuclear Physics 1177 43.1 Some Properties of Nuclei 1178 43.2 Nuclear Binding Energy 1182 43.3 Nuclear Models 1184 43.4 Radioactivity 1187 43.5 The Decay Processes 1190 43.6 Natural Radioactivity 1200 43.7 Nuclear Reactions 1200 43.8 Nuclear Fission 1202 43.9 Nuclear Reactors 1204 43.10 Nuclear Fusion 1207 43.11 Biological Radiation Damage 1211 43.12 Uses of Radiation from the Nucleus 1213 43.13 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1215 44 Particle Physics and Cosmology 1225 44.1 Field Particles for the Fundamental Forces in Nature 1226 Contents ix Locator note: boldface indicates a definition; italics indicates a figure; t indicates a table; n indicates a footnote Absolute pressure, 365 Absolute temperature scales, 485, 485–487, 486, 486, 487 Absolute uncertainty, A-20 Absorption spectroscopy, 1106 Absorptivity of radiation, 523 Academy of Natural Science, 825 Accelerated frames, circular motion in, 135–138, 136, 137 Acceleration (Sa) angular (Sa), 250–252 average angular, 251 centripetal, 82–84, 128, 128 constant, with motion in two dimensions, 71–74 dimensions and units of, 10t free-fall, 41–44, 43, 335–336, 335t instantaneous angular, 251 in Newton’s first law of motion, 98 nonconstant, 388 overview, 32–36 particle under constant, 37–41, 38 radial, 84, 84–85 relative, 85–88 rigid object under constant angular, 252–254, 253 of simple harmonic oscillator, 390n, 391, 391–392 tangential, 84, 84–85 tangential and angular relationship, 255 of two connected objects with friction, 118, 118–119 vectors for, 70 Acceleration-time graph, 35 Accelerator, particle beam in, 773. See also Particle physics and cosmology Accommodation, in eye focusing, 949 Action force, 103 Activity of radioactive material (decay rate), 1188–1190 Adaptive optics, 992 Addition associative law of, 56, 56 commutative law of, 56, 56 of vectors, 55–56, 61, 70 Adiabatic process free expansion of gas, 562, 562–563, 574, 577–578 for ideal gas, 545–547, 546 overview, 516–517, 524 Agua Caliente Solar Project (AZ), 1167 Ahlborn, B., 565n Air bags, in collision tests, 218, 218 Air columns, standing waves in, 466–469, 467, 469 Air conditioners, 55962 Air-standard diesel cycle, 583, 583 Air-water boundary, critical angle (of incidence) for, 915–916, 916 A Large Ion Collider Experiment (ALICE project), 1242 Algebra, A-5–A-10 Algebraic symbols for quantities, 10n, 15 Alkali metal elements, 1129–1130 Allowed transitions, selection rules for, 1131 Alpha decay, in radioactivity, 1095, 1095, 1191, 1191–1195, 1192t–1193t, 1195, 1200t Alternating-current (AC) circuits, 847–872. See also Current and resistance AC sources, 848, 848 capacitors in, 854, 854–856, 855 inductors in, 851, 851–853, 852, 853 phasors, 849, 849–850, 852, 852, 854, 854 power in, 859–861 resistors in, 848, 848–851, 849, 850 RLC series circuits overview, 856, 856–859, 857, 858 resonance in, 861–863, 862 storyline on, 847–848 transformers and power transmission, 863–866, 864, 864, 865 Alternating-current (AC) generators, 811, 811–813, 812 Alternative representations in problem solving, 8–9 Alzheimer’s disease, PET scans for, 1229, 1229 American Wire Gauge (AWG) system, 708 Amorphous solids, 1144 Ampere (A, SI base unit of current), 692, 694–695 Ampère, Andre-Marie, 779, 779 Ampère-Maxwell law, 875 Ampère’s law general form of, 874, 874–875, 875 magnetic field of ideal solenoid from, 783 overview, 779, 779–782, 779n, 780, 781 Amplitude of motion, 389, 389, 406, 406 Amplitude (A) of waves, 420, 423, 457 Analysis models analysis step in, 31 boundary effects, 461, 461–465, 463, 464 definition of, 7 isolated system (angular momentum), 295–300, 296, 298, 299 isolated system (energy), 185–191 free fall, 187, 187–188, 188 overview, 185–187, 186 pulleys, 188–190, 189, 190 spring-loaded popgun, 190, 190–191 isolated system (momentum), 213–215, 214 nonisolated system (angular momentum), 288–293, 290, 292 nonisolated system (energy), 182, 182–185, 184 nonisolated system (momentum), 215–219, 217, 217, 218, 219 particle in a field (electric), 598, 598–603, 599, 601, 602, 603 particle in a field (gravitational), 336–339, 338 particle in a field (magnetic), 743, 743–748, 744, 746, 747t, 748 particle in equilibrium, 105–107 particle in simple harmonic motion, 388–394, 389, 391, 392 particle in uniform circular motion, 83 particle under constant acceleration, 37–41 particle under constant velocity, 27–30 particle under net force, 106–114, 749 problem solving, 30–32 quantum particle under boundary conditions, 1084, 1084–1089, 1085, 1089 rigid object in equilibrium, 311, 311–312, 312 rigid object under constant angular acceleration, 252–254, 253 rigid object under net torque, 259, 259–263, 261, 262, 263 traveling wave, 419, 419–423, 420, 422, 423 waves in interference, 452–456, 453, 454, 455, 965, 965–968, 966, 966 wave under reflection, 902, 902–905, 903, 904, 905 wave under refraction angle of refraction for glass, 908–909 index of refraction, 906–908, 907, 907t light through prism, 910, 910 light through slab, 909–910, 910 overview, 905, 905–907, 906, 908, 908 Anderson, Carl, 1228, 1230 Angle of deviation (d), 910, 910, 913 Angle of divergence, 1135 Angle of incidence, 902, 914, 915 Angle of reflection, 902 Angle of refraction, 905, 908–909 Angular acceleration (Sa) average, 251 instantaneous, 251 overview, 250–252 rigid object under constant, 252–254, 253 tangential acceleration and, 255 Angular and translational quantities in rotational motion, 254–257, 255, 256 Angular frequency (v), 389, 392, 401, 421, 423 Angular magnification, 951 Angular momentum (L S ), 285–309 ground-state, of atom, 1112 gyroscopes and tops, motion of, 301, 301 isolated system (angular momentum), analysis model of, 295–300, 296, 298, 299 Index I-1nonisolated system (angular momentum), analysis model of, 288–293, 290, 292 quantized orbital, 786, 786 of rotating rigid object, 293, 293–295, 294 in rotational motion, 212n spin, 1125, 1125n storyline on, 285–286 vector product and torque, 286, 286–288 Angular position (u), 250, 250–252 Angular speed (v) average, 251 constant, 399–400 instantaneous, 251 translational speed and, 82–83 Angular velocity (Sv), 250–252 Angular wave number (k), 421 Anomalous trichromats, in color blindness, 950 Antenna, for electromagnetic wave production, 886–887, 887 Antiderivatives, in calculus, 44 Antilogarithms, A-9 Antinodes, 457–458 Antiparticles antineutrino, 1196, 1230, 1230n antineutron, 1228 antiproton, 1228 antiquarks, 1240, 1240t of electrons, positrons as, 1187 overview, 1227, 1227–1229, 1228, 1229 Apex angle of prism (F), 910, 910 Apollo 11 moon landing, 904, 904, 918 Apollo astronauts, 1137 Arago, Dominique-François-Jean, 984 Archimedes’s principle, 365, 365–368 Area (A) dimensions and units of, 10t of geometric shapes, A-10, A-10t integration to determine, 45 Arfeuille, Walter, 176 Aristarchus of Samos, 339n Aristotle, 41, 208 Arithmetic, for vectors, 55–58 Art forgeries, neutron activation analysis to identify, 1214 Artificial kidney machines, 768 Artificial radioactivity, 1200 Ashpole, Ian, 380 Associative law of addition, 56, 56 Asymmetrical nature of potential energy curve, 488n ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC Apparatus), 1245 Atmosphere, of Earth atmospheric blurring for telescopes and, 991–992, 992 carbon dioxide levels in, 1155, 1155 temperature of, 523 Atmospheres, law of, 554 Atomic emissions, 1072–1073 Atomic mass unit, 1179 Atomic number (Z), 1112, 1178, 1182 Atomic orbitals, 1127, 1127t Atomic physics, 1105–1143 atom, models of, 1107, 1107–1108, 1108 Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, 1109, 1109–1114, 1110, 1111 exclusion principle and periodic table, 1126, 1126–1130, 1127t, 1128, 1128, 1129, 1130 gases, atomic spectra of, 1106, 1106–1107, 1107 lasers, 1135–1137, 1136 quantum model of hydrogen atom, 1114, 1114–1117, 1115, 1116t quantum numbers orbital (,), 1120 orbital magnetic (m,), 1120–1123, 1121, 1122 principal (n), 1115 spin magnetic (ms), 1123, 1123–1126, 1124, 1125, 1126t spontaneous and stimulated transitions, 1133–1134, 1134 storyline on, 1105 visible and x-ray spectra, 1130, 1130–1133, 1131, 1132, 1133 wave functions for hydrogen, 1117, 1117–1120, 1118, 1119 Atomic shells, 1116, 1116t Atomic spectroscopy, 994–995 Atomic subshells, 1116, 1116t Atoms. See also Atomic physics; Hydrogen magnetic moments of, 786, 786–787, 787 models of, 1107, 1107–1108, 1108 Attractive force, 589, 589, 590 Atwood machine, 112, 112–113, 271–272, 272 AU (astronomical unit), 342 Audible sound waves, 429 Automobiles, fuel-cell-powered, 1 Average acceleration (ax,avg), 32, 35–36, 70 Average angular acceleration (a), 251 Average angular speed (v avg ), 251 Average coefficient of linear expansion (a), 488, 488–489, 489, 489t Average coefficient of volume expansion (b), 489, 489t Average current (I avg ), 692 Average force, 535n Average kinetic energy per molecule, 537 Average power (P avg ), 201, 860–862 Average speed (v avg ), 22–23 Average velocity (vx,avg), 22–23, 69, 70 Avogadro’s number (NA), 492–493 AWG (American Wire Gauge) system, 708, 708t Axis of rotation. See Rotational motion Back emf, 825 Background radiation, 1212 Bainbridge mass spectrometer, 753 Balboa State Park (San Diego), 468 Balmer, Johann Jacob, 1107 Balmer series (emission spectrum of hydrogen), 1106, 1107, 1107, 1111, 1111 Band theory of solids, 1160–1162, 1161, 1161 Banked roadways, 131, 131–132 Bar charts for energy, 168, 169, 200 Bardeen, John, 703, 1168 Barrier height, 1093 Barrier penetration, 1093 Baryon number, 1233–1234 Baryon particles, 1233, 1238, 1238–1239, 1239, 1242, 1242t Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 530 Base number of logarithms, A-9 Batteries, 714–716 Battery charger, wireless, 833, 833 Bay of Fundy (Nova Scotia, Canada), 477 BCS theory of superconductivity, 703 Beat frequency, 471, 471 Beats: interference in time, 469–471, 470, 471 Becquerel, Antoine-Henri, 1177, 1187 Bednorz, J. Georg, 703 Bell, Alexander Graham, 436n Bell Laboratories, 1247 Bernard, W. H., 191n Bernoulli, Daniel, 371, 371 Bernoulli’s principle, 371–375, 373, 377 Beta decay, in radioactivity, 1195–1198, 1196, 1197, 1200t Betatron, 823 Betelgeuse (star), 1050 Bethe, Hans, 1222 Big Bang theory of Universe creation, 1246 Big Ben (London, UK), 281, 281, 283, 304 Binding energy, 1145, 1182, 1182–1184, 1183 Biological radiation damage, 1211–1213, 1212t Biot, Jean-Baptiste, 772 Biot-Savart law, 772, 772–776, 773, 774, 775, 776 Blackbody radiation, 523, 1049, 1049–1055, 1050, 1051, 1052, 1053 Black holes, 350, 350 Blueshift, in wavelength, 1029 Blu-ray Discs, 981 BMR (basal metabolic rate), 530 Bohr, Niels, 791, 1109, 1109, 1184 Bohr model of hydrogen atom correspondence principle in, 1112–1113 description of, 1109, 1109–1112, 1110, 1111 electronic transitions in, 1113–1114 electron in circular path in, 144 quantum model of hydrogen atom versus, 1117–1118 Bohr radius (a0), 1110, 1117 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 548 Boltzmann distribution law, 547, 1052 Boltzmann’s constant (kB), 493, 712, 1050 Bonaparte, Napoleon, arsenic poisoning of, 1214 Bonds bond energy, 502 covalent molecular, 1146–1147, 1147 in covalent solids, 1157, 1157 in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, 1148, 1148 hydrogen molecular, 1147–1148, 1148 ionic molecular, 1145–1146, 1146 in ionic solids, 1156, 1156 in metallic solids, 1157–1158, 1158 in metals, 1157–1158, 1158 overview, 1145, 1145 potential energy in molecular, 1145 van der Waals, 1147, 1243 Bose-Einstein condensates, 1144 Angular momentum (continued) I-2 IndexBosons. See also Particle physics and cosmology gauge, 1226 Higgs, 1245 integral spin of, 1226n weak force mediated by W and Z, 1227 Bottom type of quark (b), 1241 Boundary effects, 459, 459–460, 460, 461, 463, 464 Boyle, Willard S., 1060 Brachytherapy (radiation “seeds” implanted in cancerous tissue), 1214 Brackett series, in hydrogen spectra, 1107 Bragg, W. L., 997 Bragg’s law, 997 Brahe, Tycho, 339 Braking radiation (bremsstrahlung), 1131 Braking systems, eddy currents and, 815 Brattain, Walter, 1168 Bremsstrahlung (x-rays from slowing down of electrons; braking radiation), 1131, 1131 Brewster, David, 1000 Brewster’s angle, 1000 Brewster’s law, 1000 Bright fringes, in wave optics, 986 British thermal unit (Btu), 503 Broglie, Louis de, 1064–1065, 1071 Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1239, 1241, 1242 Buckminsterfullerene, 1157 Bulk modulus, 320, 320t, 321–322 Bumpers, in collision tests, 219 Bunsen, Robert, 724 Buoyant forces, 365–368, 366 Calculus differential, A-13–A-16 instantaneous velocity derived from, 25 integral, A-16–A-19 kinematic equations from, 44–45 Calories, as heat unit, 503 Calorimetry, 504–508, 505t, 507, 507 Cameras, 947, 947–948, 1059 Cancer, detection of and therapies for, 1214, 1215, 1225 Candela (cd, unit of luminous density), 3 Capacitance (C), 663–690 calculating, 665–668, 666, 667, 668 capacitors in alternating-current circuits, 854, 854–856, 855 capacitors with dielectrics, 676–678, 677, 677t combinations of capacitors, 668, 668–672, 669, 670, 671 definition of, 664, 664–665, 665 dielectrics, atomic description of, 681, 681–683, 682, 683 displacement current in capacitors, 875, 875 electric dipole in electric field, 678, 678–680, 679, 680 energy stored in charged capacitors, 672–676, 673, 674 storyline on, 663–664 Capacitor(s), 664 Carbon dating by radioactivity decay, 1198–1199 Carbon dioxide lasers, 1136–1137 Carbon monoxide (CO) molecule, 1150–1153 Carnot, Sadi, 563 Carnot cycle in Carnot engine description of, 563, 563–567, 564, 565 entropy change in, 575–576 Carnot’s theorem, 563 Cartesian coordinate system, 53, 53, 54, 71 Categorization, in analysis models, 31 Cavendish, Sir Henry, 333 Cavendish balance, 353 Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 753 Cavity within conductor, 654, 654–655 CCD (charge-coupled device), 948, 1060 Cell separator, lasers used with, 1137 Celsius temperature scale, 484–485, 485, 487 Center of gravity, 312–313, 313 Center of mass, 230–234, 231, 232, 233 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 1215 Central maximum, in diffraction patterns, 984 Centrifugal force, 137 Centripetal acceleration, 82–84, 128, 128 Cerenkov effect, 448 Cerenkov radiation, 1047 CERN (Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire, changed to European Laboratory for Particle Physics), 1011, 1022, 1227n, 1242, 1245 Cesium-133 atom, in time standard, 5 Cesium fountain atomic clock, 4 Chadwick, James, 1223 Chain rule of differential calculus, A-14 Challenger space shuttle tragedy of 1986, 1230 Chamberlain, Owen, 1228 Change of phase from reflection, 969, 969–970, 970 Characteristic x-rays, 1131–1132 Charanka Solar Park (India), 1167 Charge, electric. See Electric fields Charge, of nucleus, 1179 Charge-coupled device (CCD), 948, 1060 Charge density, 616–617, 681–682 Charge on spheres, as example of Coulomb’s law, 597, 597–598 Charmed type of quark (c), 1241 Charon (moon of Pluto), 992, 992 Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident (Ukraine, 1986), 1206 Chip (integrated circuit), 1170 Choice, entropy and, 570–571 Chromatic aberrations in lenses, 947, 947 Chu, Steven, 1143 Circuit diagrams, 668 Circuit symbols, 668 Circular aperture and single-slit resolution, 988–992, 989, 990, 992 Circular current loop, magnetic field on axis of, 775, 775–776, 776 Circular motion, 127–149 in accelerated frames, 135–138 with constant angular speed, 399–400 nonuniform, 133–135 particle in uniform, 81, 81–83 particle in uniform (extended model), 128–133 with resistive forces present, 138–143 storyline on, 127–128 uniform, 81, 81–83, 398, 398–400, 399 Classical mechanics, 1 Clausius, Rudolf, 560n Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics, 560, 579 Climate change, 1155 Closed surface, electric flux through, 622, 622, 622–623 Closed Universe, 1249 CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid), 1011, 1245 Coaxial cable, 698–699, 832, 832 COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite, 1248 Coefficient of kinetic friction (mk), 115, 117, 117–118 Coefficient of performance (COP), for heat pumps, 560–561, 566 Coefficient of static friction (ms), 114, 115, 116t Coefficients, 26n Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude, 1143 Coherent light sources, 964, 995, 1135 Collective model of nucleus, 1187 Colliders (colliding-beam accelerators), 1245 Collisions. See also Linear momentum disk and stick, 299, 299–300, 300t in one dimension, 219–227 ballistic pendulum, 224–225, 225 elastic, 220–222 inelastic, 220 overview, 219–220, 220 perfectly inelastic, 220 stress reliever device, 223, 223–224 two-body, with spring, 226, 226–227 in two dimensions, 227–230 Color, wavelengths of visible light corresponding to, 888, 888t Color blindness, 950 Color charge, quark property of, 1242–1243 Color force, between quarks, 1243 Colors, angles of deviation of, 913 Columbia University, 1229 Coma Cluster of galaxies, 1250 Comet Halley, 341 Commutative law, 56, 56, 154n Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) Detector (CERN), 1011, 1245 Compass needles, 743, 743, 745 Complementarity, principle of, 1064 Complex numbers, 1081n Composition resistor, 695 Compound microscope, 952, 952 Compression ratio, for gasoline engines, 569 Compton, Arthur Holly, 146, 1061, 1061 Compton effect in quantum physics, 1061, 1061–1063, 1063 Compton shift equation, 1062 Compton wavelength of electrons, 1062 Concave spherical mirrors, 928, 928–930, 929, 930, 933–934 Index I-3Conceptualization, in analysis models, 30–31 Condensation, latent heat of, 509n Condensed matter physics, 1144 Condition for pure rolling motion, 271, 271 Condon, E. U., 1195 Conduction electrical, 699–701 thermal, 519, 519–521, 520, 577–578, 692 Conduction band, 1163 Conduction current, 874, 874 Conductivity (s), 695, 700 Conductors current-carrying, in magnetic fields, 755, 755–757, 756 in electrostatic equilibrium, 651, 651–655, 652, 653, 654 magnetic field between two parallel, 777, 777–778, 778 magnetic field surrounding thin, straight, 773–774, 774 overview, 591 Cones and rods, in eyes, 949 Conical pendulum, 129, 129 Conservation laws for particle physics, 1233–1236, 1234 Conservation of angular momentum, 295n. See also Angular momentum Conservation of baryon number, 1233 Conservation of electric charge, 590–591 Conservation of electron lepton number, 1235 Conservation of energy equation, 184. See also Energy, conservation of Conservation of momentum, 217. See also Linear momentum Conservation of muon lepton number, 1236 Conservation of strangeness, 1237 Conservation of tau lepton number, 1236 Conservative field, 642 Conservative forces nonconservative forces and, 169–171, 170, 170, 171, 171 overview, 637 potential energy and, 171–173 Constant acceleration model with motion in two dimensions, 71–74 particle under, 37–41 Constant angular speed, 399–400 Constant positive velocity, 36, 37 Constant velocity, particle under, 27–30 Constructive interference, 452, 453, 964, 964–966, 965, 1067 Contact force, 96, 96, 338 Continuity for fluids, equation of, 370 Continuous charge distributions, 615–635. See also Electric fields electric field of, 616, 616–620, 618, 619, 620 electric flux (FE) and, 620–623, 621, 621, 622, 623 electric potential due to, 646, 646–651, 648, 649, 650 Gauss’s law application of, 625–629, 626, 627, 628, 629 overview, 623, 623–625, 624 storyline on, 615–616 Convection, as energy transfer mechanism, 522–523 Converging thin lenses, 943, 943–944 Conversion factors, A-1–A-2 Conversion of units, 12 Convex spherical mirrors, 930–931, 931, 935, 935 Cooper, Gordon, 1043 Cooper, L. N., 703 Coordinate systems, 53–54 COP (coefficient of performance), for heat pumps, 560–561, 566 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 41, 339 Copper, Hall effect for, 762 Coriolis force, 136 Cornu, Marie, 870 Correspondence principle, of Bohr, 1112–1113 Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite, 1248 Cosmic rays, 752 Cosmology. See Particle physics and cosmology Coulomb (C, unit of electric charge), 593 Coulomb, Charles, 593 Coulomb constant (ke), 593 Coulomb repulsive force between alpha particle and nucleus, 1095 fusion reactions hindered by, 1208 in liquid-drop model, 1184 nuclear stability and, 1182, 1182–1183, 1183 size and structure of nuclei determined by, 1179–1181, 1180 Coulomb’s law, 593–598 in capacitance determination, 664n charge on spheres example, 597, 597–598 conservative force between charges in, 637 hydrogen atom example, 594–595, 595 overview, 592, 592–594, 594t resultant force example, 595, 595–596 zero, as net force value, 596, 596–597 Covalent molecular bonds, 1146–1147, 1147 Covalent solids, 1157, 1157 Crest, of waves, 417 Critical angle (of incidence), 915–916 Critical density, universe fate and, 1249, 1249–1250 Critically damped motion, 839 Critical systems, 405 Cross product, 286, 286 CT scans, for medical diagnosis, 1177, 1213, 1225 Cubic zirconia versus diamond, 915 Curie, Marie, 1187 Curie, Pierre, 1187 Curie temperatures for ferromagnetic substances, 788, 788t Current (I) conduction, 874, 874 displacement, 874, 874–875, 875 in inductor in AC circuit, 852 in phase with voltage, 849 Current and resistance, 691–712. See also Alternating-current circuits; Direct-current circuits; Faraday’s law of induction current, overview of, 692, 692–694, 693 electrical conduction model, 699–701 electrical power, 703, 703–706, 705 resistance, overview of, 694–699, 695, 695, 696, 696t, 697, 697t, 698 storyline on, 691–692 superconductors, 702, 702–703, 702t temperature and, 701, 701–702 Current-carrying wire, magnetic field created by, 780, 780–781 Current density (J), 694, 700 Curvature of spacetime, 1040–1041 Curved wire, magnetic field due to, 774–775, 775 Curzon, F. L., 565n Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency of engines, 565n Cutoff frequency (fc), in photoelectric effect, 1056 Cutoff wavelength, in photoelectric effect, 1059 Cyclic process, on PV diagram, 515, 515 Cyclotron, 750, 754, 754–755 Cylinder as symmetry for capacitor, 667, 667 as symmetry for charge distribution, 627–628, 628 Daedalus and Icarus, myth of, 529 Damped oscillations, 404, 404–405, 405, 838, 838t Dark energy, 1251, 1251n Dark fringes, in wave optics, 986–987 Dark matter, 350, 350–351, 351, 1250–1251 Daughter nucleus, in radioactive decay, 1191 Davisson, C. J., 1065 Davisson-Germer experiment, 1064–1065, 1070 Dead Sea Scrolls, carbon dating of, 1198 Death Valley (CA), 496 de Broglie, Louis, 1064 de Broglie wavelength, 1064, 1084 Debye, Peter, 1061 Decay constant, 1187 Decay rate, 1188 Deceleration, 34 Decibels (dB), 436–437 Decimal places, 14 Defibrillator, 663, 663, 676 Definite integral, in calculus, 44, A-16, A-17, A-19t Deformable systems, 152, 237–239, 238 Delta (D) symbol, 22 Density (r) of common substances, 361t definition of, 6 of nucleus, 1180–1181 Depletion region, in junction diodes, 1165–1166 Depth, pressure variation with, 360–364 Derivative in calculus, A-14 instantaneous velocity as, 25 second, acceleration as, 34 Derived quantities, 6, 10t Destructive interference, 452, 453, 455, 964, 964–966, 965, 986 Deuterium (heavy water) fuel, for fusion reactions, 1207 I-4 IndexDewar flask, 525, 525 Diamagnetism, 788–789, 789, 845 Diamond, cubic zirconia versus, 915 Diatomic molecules, 1146 Dielectric constant (k), 676–677, 677t Dielectrics atomic description of, 681, 681–683, 682, 683 capacitors with, 676–678, 677, 677t Dielectric strength, 677, 677t Diesel and gasoline engines, 567–569, 568 Differential calculus, A-13–A-16 Diffraction, intensity distribution from, 969 Diffraction patterns, 983–1010. See also Wave optics diffraction grating and, 992–996, 993, 994, 995, 1065 from narrow slits, 985, 985–988, 987, 988 overview, 984, 984 single-slit and circular aperture resolution, 988–992, 989, 990, 992 storyline on, 983 in wave nature of particles, 1065 Diffraction of x-rays by crystals, 996, 996–997, 997 Diffuse reflection, 902 Digital micromirror device, in projection equipment, 904, 904–905 Dimensional analysis, 10–11 Dimensions, A-2–A-3 Diodes junction, 1165, 1165–1166, 1166 light-emitting and light-absorbing, 1166–1168, 1167 Diopters, in lens prescriptions, 950 Dipole, electric potential due to, 648, 648 Dipole antenna, 886–887 Dipole-dipole force, 1147 Dipole-induced dipole force, 1147 Dirac, Paul, 1125, 1227 Dirac sea (electrons in negative energy states), 1227 Direct-current (DC) circuits, 713–741, 714. See also Current and resistance electrical safety, 733, 733–734, 734 electromotive force (emf, «), 714, 714–716, 716 household wiring, 732, 732–733, 733 Kirchhoff’s rules, 723, 723–726, 724, 725 RC circuits, 725–732 charging capacitors, 725–728, 727, 728, 729–730 discharging capacitors, 728–729, 729, 730–731 energy delivered to resistor in, 731–732 intermittent windshield wipers example, 729 time constant, 728 resistors, 716–722 equivalent resistance, calculating, 721, 721 landscape lights example, 720, 720 in parallel, 718, 718–720, 720 in series, 716–718, 717, 718 three, in parallel, 722, 722 storyline on, 713–714 Direct-current (DC) generators, 810–811, 811 Disneyland, 127, 127 Disney World, 93 Disorder, entropy and, 571 Dispersion, 416n Dispersion force, 1147 Dispersion of light, 912–914, 913, 914 Displacement (Dx). See also Superposition and standing waves approaching zero, 25n as change in position, 21–22, 22, 25n in definition of work, 152, 152–153, 153, 156–157, 157 potential energy function (U) and, 172n unit-vector notation for, 61 as vector quantity, 54, 54–55 Displacement amplitude of waves, 430 Displacement antinode, 466 Displacement current, 874, 874–875, 875 Displacement node, 466 Displacement vector, 69, 69 Dissociation energy, 1146, 1146n Distance, 22, 22 Distribution function, 547 Distributive law of multiplication, 155 Disturbance, propagation of, 416, 416–419, 417, 418 Divergence, angle of, 1135 Diverging mirror, 931 Diverging thin lenses, 944, 944–945 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, hydrogen bonding in, 1148, 1148 Domains, in ferromagnetic materials, 787, 788 Donor atoms, in doped semiconductors, 1165 Doped semiconductors, 1164–1165, 1165 Doppler, Christian Johann, 438n Doppler effect, 438, 438–443, 439, 440, 442, 443, 1029 Doppler shifts, 1248 Dot product, 154, 154n Double rainbows, 913, 914 Double-reflected light ray, 903, 903 Double refraction, polarization of light waves by, 1001, 1001–1002, 1002t Double-slit experiment, 1070, 1070–1071 Double-slit interference pattern, intensity distribution of, 968–969, 969 Down type of quark (d), 1240 Drag coefficient, 141 Drag force, 377 Drift velocity, 693–694, 700, 701n, 761 Drude, Paul, 699 Drude model of electrical conduction, 699–701 Dulong-Petit law, 1172 DVDs, as diffraction gratings, 993–994, 994 Earth atmosphere carbon dioxide levels, 1155, 1155 atmospheric blurring for telescopes, 991–992, 992 centripetal acceleration of, 83 density of, 336 escape speed of, 350t, 549 as inertial frame, 98 kinetic energy of, 162t magnetic field of, 743–745, 744 mass of, 5t orbit of, 340, 350 ozone layer, 889 planetary data, 343t Ear thermometer, 1053, 1053 Earthquake (Japan)-caused nuclear power disaster (2011), 1206 Earthquakes, seismic waves from, 417 Eaton, Ashton, 77 Eccentricities, in planetary motion, 340, 340–341 Eddy currents, 814, 814–815, 865 Edison, Thomas, 865 EER (energy efficiency ratio) for air conditioners, 584 Eightfold way (patterns in baryon particles), 1239 Einstein, Albert energy equation of, 1231 general theory of relativity of, 1039–1041 gravitational waves predicted by, 975, 975 Michelson-Morley experiment and, 1016–1017 photoelectric effect model of, 1057–1058 Planck results rederived by, 1053 relativity principle of, 1018, 1018–1019, 1018n special theory of relativity of, 1011 Elastic collisions, 220–222, 221 Elastic limit, 321 Elastic modulus, 320 Elastic potential energy, 167 Elastic properties of solids, 319–323 bulk modulus (B), 320, 320t, 321–322 prestressed concrete example, 322, 322–323 shear modulus (S), 320, 320t, 321 Young’s modulus (Y), 320–321, 320t Electrical conduction in insulators, 1162–1163 in metals, 1162, 1162 model of, 699–701 in semiconductors, 1163, 1163–1165, 1163t, 1164, 1165 Electrical power, 691, 691, 703, 703–706, 705 Electrical safety, 733, 733–734, 734, 800 Electrical transmission (TET), 183 Electric charges, magnetic fields from moving, 772 Electric dipole moment, 678 Electric fields (E S ), 588–615. See also Continuous charge distributions; Current and resistance Coulomb’s law, 592, 592–598, 594t charge on spheres example, 597, 597–598 hydrogen atom example, 594–595, 595 overview, 592–594 resultant force example, 595, 595–596 zero, as net force value, 596, 596–597 electric charge (q) electric force and, 593–598 of electron, proton, and neutron, 594t in particle in a field (electric) model, 598–603 properties, 589, 589–591, 590 smallest unit (e) of free, 593 electric dipole in, 678, 678–680, 679, 680 electric field lines, 603, 603–605, 604, 605 Index I-5electric potential for value of, 645–646, 646 induction to charge objects, 591–592, 592 motion of charged particles in uniform, 605–607, 606, 607 particle in electric field, analysis model of, 598, 598–603, 599, 601, 602, 603 sinusoidal, 880–881, 881 storyline on, 588–589 Electric flux (FE). See also Gauss’s law description of, 620–623, 621, 621, 622, 623 displacement current and, 875, 875–876 magnetic field differences from, 785, 785 Electric force, 590, 590 Electric guitar, 800, 800 Electric potential (UE), 636–662 conductors in electrostatic equilibrium, 651, 651–655, 652, 653, 654 continuous charge distributions as source of, 646, 646–651, 648, 649, 650 electric field value from, 645–646, 646 of live wires, 732n point charges as source of, 642, 642–645, 643 potential difference and overview, 637–639, 638 in uniform electric field, 639–642, 640, 641 storyline on, 636–637 voltage drop as decrease in, 717n Electric shock, 733, 733–734, 800 Electromagnetic blood pumps, 768 Electromagnetic force, 96, 1226–1227, 1227t Electromagnetic radiation (TER), 183, 183n. See also Quantum mechanics; Quantum physics Electromagnetic waves, 873–896. See also Faraday’s law of induction; Magnetic fields antenna production of, 886–887, 887 definition of, 1 displacement current and general form of Ampère’s law, 874, 874–875, 875 electronic devices and, 797–798 energy carried by, 882–884, 883 Maxwell’s equations and Hertz’s discoveries, 876–878, 877, 878 momentum and radiation pressure, 884–886 phase change from reflection, 970 plane, 878, 878–882, 879, 881 in quantum physics, 1063–1064 spectrum of, 887–889, 888, 888, 889, 889 storyline on, 873–874 Electromotive force (emf, «) inducing, 800, 800–801, 812 motional, 801, 801–805, 802, 803, 805 overview, 714, 714–716, 716 self-induced («L), 825 Electron affinity, 1146 Electron capture, 1197, 1200t Electron cloud, 1118 Electron-hole pairs, in intrinsic semiconductors, 1163 Electron microscope, 90, 1066, 1066 Electron-positron annihilation, 1229 Electrons bending beam of, 751, 751 charge and mass of, 594t in early atomic models, 1107–1109 as leptons, 1233 linear momentum of, 1035 in magnetic fields, 748, 748 muon decay to, 1230 in photoelectric effect, 1055–1056 as photoelectrons, 1055n positrons as antiparticles of, 1187 spin angular momentum for, 1125, 1125n spin property of, 786–787, 787 transmission coefficient of, 1094 uncertainty principle and location of, 1072 wave nature of, 1064–1066 Electron spin resonance, 1216 Electron volt (eV, unit of energy), 638 Electrostatic equilibrium, 651, 651–655, 652, 653, 654 Electroweak theory, 1244 ELF (extremely low-frequency) waves, 893 Ellipses, 340, A-11 Emission spectroscopy, 1106, 1106 Emissivity of surface, 523 Endoscopes, lasers used with, 1137 Endothermic nuclear reactions, 1201 Energetically favorable conditions, for molecules to form, 1146 Energy (E), 150–180. See also Atomic physics; Energy transfer mechanisms; Kinetic energy; Potential energy; Thermodynamics, first law of in AC circuit analysis, 859–861 binding, of molecules, 1145 conservative and nonconservative forces, 169–171, 170, 170, 171, 171 conservative forces and potential, 171–173 conversion factors for, A-2 dark, 1251 delivered to resistor, 731–732 dissociation, 1146 in electric fields, 672–674, 673 electromagnetic waves to carry, 882–884, 883 as electron affinity of atoms, 1146 energy diagrams and system equilibrium, 173, 173–174, 174 equipartition of, 538, 542–545, 543, 544, 545 Fermi, 1158–1160, 1160t, 1163n fission, release of, 1203–1204 frequency, relation to, 1053 in inductors, 831 internal, 170, 502 ionization, 1111, 1130 kinetic, 161, 161–164, 162t, 163, 164 in magnetic fields, 830–832, 832 mass as form of, 1036 mysterious, of universe, 1251 nuclear binding, 1182, 1182–1184, 1183 photovoltaic solar cells for, 1167 in planetary and satellite motion, 347, 347–351, 348, 350, 350t, 351 potential, 165, 165–169, 168, 169 for power plants, 812–813 quantized, 1051 radiated by accelerated electric charge, 878 radium decay and liberation of, 1194–1195 reaction (Q), 1201 relativistic, 1035–1039, 1036 rest (ER), 1036 equivalent for atomic mass unit, 1179 of proton, 1038–1039 for quarks and leptons, 1242t of selected particles, 1179t and total energy, 1037 in rotational motion, 269, 269–272, 270t, 271, 272 of simple harmonic oscillator, 394–397, 395, 396 sinusoidal waves on strings, transfer of, 426, 426–428 states of, in molecules overview, 1148 rotational motion of molecules, 1148–1151, 1149 spectra of, 1153, 1153–1156, 1154, 1155 vibrational motion of molecules, 1151, 1151–1153, 1152 stored in charged capacitors, 672–676, 673, 674 storyline on, 150–151 system model of, 151 for work done by constant force, 151–154, 152, 153, 154 by varying force, 156–161, 157, 158, 159, 160 of x-rays, 1133 Energy, conservation of, 181–209 isolated system (energy), analysis model of, 185–191 free fall, 187, 187–188, 188 overview, 185–187, 186 pulleys, 188, 188–190, 189, 190 spring-loaded popgun, 190–191, 191 kinetic friction, 191–196, 192, 194 mechanical energy changes for nonconservative forces, 196–200, 197, 198, 199, 200 nonisolated system (energy), analysis model of, 182, 182–185, 184 power, 200–202, 201, 202 principle of, 163, 170 storyline on, 181–182 Energy efficiency ratio (EER) for air conditioners, 584 Energy gap (E g ) of material (energy separation between valence and conduction bands), 1163, 1163t Energy-level diagrams, 545, 545, 548, 1051, 1051, 1051n Energy quantization, 544–545, 545 Energy spreading, entropy change and, 574 Energy transfer mechanisms convection, 522–523 electrical transmission (TET), 183, 703–706 electromagnetic radiation (TER), 183, 523–524, 878–884 heat (Q), 182–183, 502–505 Electric fields (continued) I-6 Indexhome insulation, 521–522, 521t, 522 matter transfer (TMT), 183, 522 mechanical waves (TMW), 182, 426–428, 433–438 overview, 182–185, 518–519 thermal conduction, 519, 519–521, 520 work (W), 151–161, 152, 182 Enlargement, magnification versus, 929 Entropy (S) overview, 570, 570–572, 571, 571 in quantum systems, 1127 second law of thermodynamics and, 578–580, 579 in thermodynamic systems, 572–578, 575, 576 Environment, as surrounding system, 151 Equations Bernoulli’s, 371–375 Brewster’s law, 1000 Compton shift, 1062 conservation of energy, 184 continuity for fluids, 370 Galilean transformation, 86, 1014, 1015–1016 Hagen-Poiseuille, 377 kinematic, 39, 44–45 lens-makers’, 940–941 linear wave, 428, 428–429 Lorentz transformation, 1030, 1030–1034, 1033 Malus’s law, 999 Maxwell’s, 876–878 mirror, 930 photoelectric effect, 1058 Raleigh-Jeans law, 1050 range, 76 rotational motion, 270t Schrödinger, 1092 of state for ideal gas, 492–493 Stefan’s law, 1049 thin lens, 941 translational motion, 253t, 270t Wien’s displacement law, 1050 Equilibrium, 310–331 center of gravity, 312–313, 313 electrostatic, 651, 651–655, 652, 653, 654 particle in (analysis model), 105–107, 117, 117 rigid object in (analysis model), 311, 311–312, 312 rigid objects in static, 313–319 horizontal beam, 315–317, 316 leaning ladder, 317, 317 seesaw, 314, 314–315 wheelchair on curb, 318, 318–319 storyline on, 310–311 of system, 173, 173–174 neutral, 173 stable, 173 unstable, 173 thermal, 513 Equilibrium position of system, 387, 387 Equipartition of energy, 538, 542–545, 543, 544, 545 Equipotential surface, 640 Equivalent capacitance, 671–672 Equivalent resistance, 717, 719, 721, 721, 864 Ergonomics, 593 Escape speed, 348, 348–350, 350t Estimates, 12–13 Euler’s number (e, base of natural logarithm), 140, 712 European Laboratory for Particle Physics. See CERN European Space Agency, 1248 Evaporation, 550 Event horizon, of black holes, 350 Exchange particles, 1226. See also Particle physics and cosmology Excimer lasers, 1136 Exclusion principle, 1126–1130, 1127t, 1128 for electrons in Dirac sea, 1227 for fermions, 1242–1243 periodic table and, 1128, 1128–1130, 1129, 1130 Exoplanets, 890–891, 891t Exothermic nuclear reactions, 1201 Expanding universe, evidence for, 1248–1249 Expectation values, 1081–1082, 1082n, 1087–1088 Explorer VIII satellite, 354 Exponents, 26n, A-4, A-6–A-7 Extraterrestrial magnetic fields, Zeeman effect to measure, 1122 Extremely low-frequency (ELF) waves, 893 Extrinsic semiconductors, 1165 Eyes, 948, 948–950, 949, 950, 990, 990–991 Factoring equations, A-7 Fahrenheit, Daniel, 496 Fahrenheit temperature scale, 487 Fairchild Camera and Instrument, Inc., 1170 Falling objects, motion of, 41–44, 43 Farad (F, unit of capacitance), 664 Faraday, Michael, 587, 664, 772, 797, 798 Faraday cage, 654 Faraday disk, 818 Faraday’s law of induction, 797–823. See also Inductance Ampère-Maxwell law and, 876 eddy currents, 814, 814–815 general form of, 808, 808–810, 809 generators and motors, 810–814, 811, 811, 812 Lenz’s law, 805–808, 806, 807, 808, 813 motional emf, 801, 801–805, 802, 803, 805 overview, 798, 798–801, 799, 799, 800 plane electromagnetic waves predicted by, 878–879 storyline on, 797–798 Far point, in eye focusing, 949 Farsightedness (hyperopia), 949–950 Fermat, Pierre de, 924 Fermat’s principle, 924 Fermi, Enrico, 18, 1196, 1202, 1205 Fermi-Dirac distribution function, 1158, 1158 Fermi energy (EF), 1158–1160, 1160t, 1162–1163, 1163n Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), 1045, 1233, 1241, 1245 Fermion particles, 1242 Ferris wheel, circular motion of, 132, 132–133 Ferromagnetism, 787–788, 788, 788t Feynman, Richard P., 609, 1230 Feynman diagrams, 1230, 1231, 1243 Fictitious force, 135–136, 136 Field-effect transistor, 1168 Field forces, 96, 96, 183n, 338 Field particles, 1226. See also Particle physics and cosmology Finalization, in analysis models, 31–32 Fission fragments, 1203 Fixed axis. See Rotational motion Fizeau, Armand H. L., 900, 900–901, 918 Flat mirrors, 926, 926–928, 927, 928 Flat refracting surfaces, 937, 937 Flat Universe, 1249, 1251 Flavors of quarks, 1240 Floating objects, buoyant force on, 367, 367 Flow calorimeter, 530 Fluid, 358 Fluid mechanics, 358–384 Bernoulli’s equation, 371–375 buoyant forces and Archimedes’s principle, 365–368 fluid dynamics, 368–371, 377–378 pressure measurement of, 359, 359, 364–365 overview, 359–360 variation with depth, 360–364 storyline on, 358 viscous fluids flowing in pipes, 375–377, 376, 376, 376t Fluorodeoxyglucose, 1177 Focal length (f), 930, 930, 940–941, 941 Focal point, 930, 930–931, 941 Focus, of ellipse, 340 Focus point, focal point versus, 931 Food preservation, radiation for, 1215, 1215 Forbidden transitions, 1130 Force ( F S ). See also Torque acceleration proportional to, 34 attractive, 589, 589, 590 buoyant, 139n, 365–368, 366, 366 centrifugal, 137 centripetal acceleration from, 128 color, between quarks, 1243 concept of, 96–97 conservative between charges described by Coulomb’s law, 637 nonconservative and, 169–171, 170, 170, 171, 171 potential energy and, 171–173 contact, 338 conversion factors for, A-1 Coriolis, 136 on dam, 363–364, 364 dipole-dipole, 1147 dipole-induced dipole, 1147 dispersion, 1147 drag, 377 electric, 590, 590 electromagnetic, 1226–1227, 1227t fictitious, 135–137, 136, 137 field, 338 friction, 114–119 fundamental, particle physics in, 1226–1227, 1227t gravitational, 42, 96, 102–103, 102–103, 335–336, 1226–1227, 1227t Index I-7impulse of net, 216, 217 kinetic friction, 115–118, 116, 116 lift, 377 Lorentz, 752, 876 magnetic, 745–746, 746 in molecular model of ideal gas, 535 newton (N), as SI unit of, 100 nuclear, 1181, 1226–1227, 1227t, 1231 particle under net force model, 106, 106 pressure versus, 359 radial, 134, 134 repulsive, 589, 589, 590, 790 repulsive magnetic, 790 resistive, 138–143, 139, 139–141 restoring, 387 resultant, in Coulomb’s law, 595, 595–596 retarding, 404–405 strong, 1231, 1242 tangential, 134, 134 vectors and, 97, 97 weak, 96, 1226–1227, 1227t work done by constant, 151–154, 152, 153, 154 work done by varying, 156–161, 157, 158, 159, 160 zero as net value of, 596, 596–597 Force constant, 158, 160 Forced convection, 522 Forced oscillations, 405–407, 406, 407 Ford, W. K., 351n Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 472n Fourier series, 472 Fourier’s theorem, 472–473 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, 974–975 Fractional uncertainty, A-20 Frames of reference, 86, 86, 98 Franklin, Benjamin, 590 Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, 985, 985 Free-body diagrams, 104, 107, 109, 112, 113 Free-electron theory of metals, 591n, 1158, 1158–1160, 1159, 1160t Free expansion, entropy change in, 576–577 Free-fall acceleration (g), 42, 335–336, 335t Free space, permeability of (m0), 772 Free space, permittivity of (e0), 593 French Academy of Science, 984 Frequency (f) angular (v), 389 beat, 470, 471 cutoff, in photoelectric effect, 1056 energy relation to, 1053 fundamental, 462 natural, 467–468 of particles, 1064 pitch versus, 472 resonance (v0), 406, 465–466, 861–862 of simple harmonic oscillator, 390, 392 of sound, 436–437, 437 of tuning fork, 469 of waves, 420, 423 Fresnel, Augustin, 984 Fresnel diffraction pattern, 985n Fresnel lens, 943, 943 Friction forces of, 114–119, 115 kinetic, 115, 115, 191–196, 192, 194 rolling, 273 static, 114, 115 Fringes in wave optics, 986–987 in Young double-slit experiment, 963, 963 Frisch, Otto, 1202 FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) spectroscopy, 974–975 Fuel cells, automobiles powered by, 1 Fuel elements, of uranium, 1205 Fukushima I nuclear power plant (Japan), 1206 Fulcrum, 314 Fuller, R. Buckminster, 1157 Functions, in calculus, A-14 Fundamental forces, 96, 1226–1227, 1227t Fundamental frequency, 462 Fundamental quantities, 6 Furnace Creek Ranch, Death Valley (CA), 496 Fusion, latent heat of (L f), 509, 510t Fusion, nuclear, 1207–1211, 1208, 1209, 1210 Gabor, Dennis, 995 Galaxy clusters, 351 Galilean relativity, 1013, 1013–1016, 1014, 1015 Galilean transformation equations overview, 86 space-time, 1014 velocity, 1015–1016 Galilei, Galileo, 20, 41, 41–42, 147, 899 Gamma decay, in radioactivity, 1199, 1199–1200, 1200t Gamma rays, 889 Gases atomic spectra of, 1106, 1106–
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