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عدد المساهمات : 18967 التقييم : 35407 تاريخ التسجيل : 01/07/2009 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير منتدى هندسة الإنتاج والتصميم الميكانيكى
| موضوع: كتاب Physical Analysis for Tribology الأربعاء 08 نوفمبر 2017, 7:45 pm | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Physical analysis for tribology Terence F. J. Quinn Professor of Engineering School of Engineering and Applied Science United States International University (European Campus) Bushey, Hertfordshire
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents page Preface vii Nomenclature list ix 1 Tribology 1 1.1 Definitions of common tribological terms 1 1.2 Frictional behaviour of materials 9 1.3 Lubrication between surfaces in relative motion 19 1.4 The wear of sliding and rolling surfaces 22 1.5 Concluding remarks on the relevance of physical analytical techniques for tribology 34 2 Macroscopic physical techniques 35 2.1 Optical microscopy and optical interferometry 35 2.2 Transmission electron microscopy of replicas of surfaces 50 2.3 Profilometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 56 2.4 Electrical capacitance and resistance 64 2.5 Magnetic perturbation techniques 67 2.6 Macroscopic techniques for monitoring oil-lubricated machinery (with special emphasis on 'ferrography') 77 2.7 Concluding remarks regarding the importance of macroscopic physical techniques to tribology 80 3 Microscopic physical techniques for studying atomic arrangement 82 3.1 Basic crystallography 82 3.2 X-ray diffraction techniques 98 3.3 Electron diffraction methods 123 3.4 Concluding remarks regarding the importance of microscopic techniques for studying the atomic arrangements in tribo-elements 146 4 Microscopic techniques for studying atomic structure 148 4.1 Optical spectra 148 4.2 X-ray spectra 153 4.3 Electron probe microanalysis 166 4.4 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 175 4.5 Auger electron spectroscopy 190 4.6 Other microscopic techniques 200 4.7 Concluding remarks 201Contents 5 The analysis of lubricant films 202 5.1 The analysis of extreme-pressure lubricant films formed in the presence of typical disulphide additives 202 5.2 The analysis of solid lubricant films formed when lamellar solids slide against metals and alloys 224 5.3 The application of physical methods of analysis to the measurement of lubricant film thickness 259 5.4 The analysis of surface films formed in the presence of anti-wear additives 275 6 The analysis of surface temperatures in tribo-systems 291 6.1 The thermal aspects of sliding 291 6.2 The crystallographic changes caused by 'hot-spot' temperatures during sliding wear 313 6.3 Direct measurement of surface temperatures 338 6.4 Concluding remarks on the relevance of physical analytical f techniques for analysing surface temperatures in tribo-systems 358 7 The analysis of pitting failures in tribo-systems 360 7.1 Failure in rolling contact bearings in nominal point contact 360 7.2 Basic research into the contact fatigue of ball-bearings 363 7.3 Failures in gears and other tribo-systems in nominal line contact 365 7.4 Basic research on the pitting of discs 368 7.5 Physical analysis of contact fatigue pitting in tribo-systems 376 7.6 The current position in contact fatigue pitting failures 397 8 The analysis of oxidational wear in tribo-systems 399 8.1 Introduction 399 8.2 The oxidational wear of a typical low-alloy steel tribo-system 400 8.3 The oxidational wear of the high-chromium ferritic steel/ austenitic stainless steel tribo-system 408 8.4 The oxidational wear of 316 stainless steel tribo-systems 417 8.5 Concluding remarks 431 9 The application of physical techniques to selected ceramic tribo- 432 systems 9.1 Introduction 432 9.2 Silicon nitride tribo-systems 432 9.3 Silicon carbide tribo-systems 439 9.4 Sapphire tribo-systems 446 9.5 Concluding remarks on the application of physical techniques to ceramic tribo-systems 456 References 458 Index Index aberration astigmatic, 38 chromatic, 37 spherical, 37 aberrations, in optical lenses, 37 abrasion, 4 absorption coefficient for light, 263 linear, 161 mass, 161 absorption correction, X-ray, 173 absorption edges, for X-rays, 162 absorption factor for X-rays, 121 absorption X-ray spectra, 160 activation energy, for parabolic oxidation, 29, 298, 299 additive disulphide, 202 extreme-pressure, 74 additives anti-oxidant, 276 lubricity, 276 adhesion, 4 adhesive wear, 5 adiabatic diesel, 229 advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR), 417 adventitious carbon peak (XPS), 421 AES analysis of anti-wear films of ZDDP, 280 AES analysis of worn silicon carbide, 442 AES analysis of worn silicon nitride, 436 AES analysis of worn stainless steel, 424 AES applied to pitting failure under e.p. additives, 387 AGR (Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor), 4 Aldermaston School of Surface Physics, 9, 24 . a-Al2O3 (sapphire), 446 a-Fe R-values, 331 aluminium/electrographite tribo-system, 321 aluminium K-values, 324 aluminium-bronze/steel sliding system, 284 amorphous contrast of electron micrographs, 140, 267 amplitude density function, 57, 59 amplitude factor for X-rays, 119 analyser, electron energy, 177 electrostatic, 179 magnetic, 178 analysis of amorphous wear tracks, silicon nitride, 436 of lubricant films, 202 of oxidational wear in tribo-systems, 399 of solid lubricant films, 224 angular momentum, 149 anti-oxidant additives, 276 anti-wear additives, 137, 202, 275 definitions, 203, 277 anti-wear region of lubrication, 203 anti-wear surface films, XPS analysis of, 277 aperture, numerical, 40 aqueous lubricant Stribeck curve, 374 and pitting, 368 Archard and Cowking equation, 371 Archard Wear Law, 29 Archard's hypothesis of friction, 14 area density of contact spots, 34 area of contact apparent, 10, 34 real, 9 Arrhenius constant for static oxidation, 298 for tribological oxidation, 29, 299 associated Auger electron emission, 176 astigmatism, 38 Aston University, Tribology Group, 383, 419 atomic number correction, 171 atomic scattering factor for X-rays, 118, 323 atomic sensitivity factor, XPS, 181 Auger electron emission, associated with XPS, 176 Auger electron spectroscopy, (AES), 190 Auger lines, in XPS spectra, 183 Auger Microprobe, Scanning, 424 Auger parameter, modified, (XPS), 188 Auger process, 190 austenite, proportion of retained, 318 autoradiographic technique, 24 average roughness height, 57 aviation fuel, lubricity of, 283 477Index BIO life, 360 BIO life, empirical equation, 361 BIO life, factors affecting, 363 back-scattering coefficient, 172 ball bearing systems, 360 ball bearings, surface analysis applied to, 377 Balmer series, 150 basic dynamic capacity of ball bearings, 360 bearing length ratio, 58 bearing number, its effect on pitting wear, 374 bearing parameter, of the Stribeck curve, 20, 284 bearing steel (AISI 52100), wear of, 296 bearings, 6 ball, 6 plain, 6 roller, 6 Blok's flash temperature criterion, 366 body-centred cubic lattice, 96 Bohr theory of hydrogen spectra, 148 boron nitride, 224 boundary lubrication, 19, 280, 285 Bragg's hypothesis of graphitic lubrication, 225 Bragg's Law, for X-ray diffraction, 98 Bragg—Brentano focusing system, 117 Bravais lattices, 95 non-primitive, 96 primitive, 95 Brinell hardness and the coefficient of friction, 13 cam and flat lifter system, 349 cam lifter isotherms, 351 temperature distribution, 351 test apparatus, 350 Cambridge School, Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces Laboratory, 4 cams, 260 carbon fibres, 5 carbon peak, adventitious, XPS, 421 carbon, /^-values, 314 CEGB Research Laboratories, 419 centipoise, unit of dynamic viscosity, 8 centistokes, unit of kinematic viscosity, 8 centre line average, definition of, 57 centre line, definition of, 57 centre of inversion, 83 ceramic diesel, 342, 399, 431, 432 ceramic tribo-systems, 432 characterising unworn surfaces, 445 characteristic curves, for photographic plates, 273 characteristic life, of a population of ball bearings, 365 chromium steels, wear of, 314 classification of crystals, 82 classifications of wear, 4 cold welding, 11 computer analysis for oxidational wear, 302 constantan/mild steel tribo-system, 340, 341 contact fatigue (or pitting), 22, 260, 360 (rolling-four-ball tester), 361 in gears, 365 (Unisteel tester), 362 contact plateaux, 26 contact resistance, 65 contact temperature, 27, 32 in terms of oxide thickness, 413 contacting techniques, 60 contrast of a scanning electron micrograph, 62 of electron micrographs, amorphous, 140, 267 per unit thickness (electron microscopy), 54 copper, K-values, 328 copper/reactor graphite tribo-system, 240, 321 corrosion by extreme-pressure additives, 397 corrosion resistance and tribological performance, 417 cosine squared curve, 41 crack detector, magnetic perturbation method, 74, 75 crack propagation time, 383 criteria for selection, oxidational wear model, 298 critical oxide film thickness, 27 critical thickness, for electron diffraction, 145 cross sections for electron scattering, 269 crystal lattices, 85 crystal orientation, wear of sapphire on steel, 446, 448 crystal spectrometer, 153 crystal systems, 91 crystallites, 82 crystallographic axes, 87 crystallographic directions, 88, 89 crystallographic indicators of hot-spot temperatures, 313 crystallography, 82 cubic crystal lattice, 88 cuprous oxide, R-values, 28, 33 cylindrical mirror electron energy analyser, 177, 426 cylindrical X-ray diffraction camera, 109 478Index D-ratio, definition, 72, 369 D-ratio, in pitting contact fatigue, 22, 259, 365 Debye-Waller temperature factor, for Xrays, 121 delamination wear, 27 depth of field, 41, 50, 52 depth of focus, 50, 52 depth profiling, 177, 194, 390, 424 di-tert-butyl disulphide (DTBDS), 204 diagonal glide planes, 97 diametral plane in stereographic projection, 84 diamond glide planes, 97 dibenzyl disulphide (DBDS), 204 diesel, ceramic, 342 diesel engine exhaust valve materials, wear of, 408 diffraction grating, optical, 148 diffusivity, 293 dimeric acid, 285 diphenyl disulphide (DPDS), 204 disc of confusion, 37 dispersion of X-rays, 154 distance of sliding contact, 297 disulphide additives, 202 division of heat, 291 at contacting interfaces, 7 measurement of, 294 dry bearings, especially graphitic, 5 dry wear, 23 of steels, 25 duplex oxide, 418 dwell number, 283 dwell test, Lucas, 283 dwell tester, 283 dynamic friction, 1, 4 dynamic thermocouples, 291, 339 dynamic viscosity, 7 dynamical diffraction, 120 dynamical theory of electron diffraction, 144 edge-irradiated, glancing-angle XRD method, 112, 115 EHL tester, for infra-red analysis of hot spots, 347 elastic deformation and the laws of friction, 14 elastic limit, 11 elastic modulus, reduced, 17, 363 elasto-hydrodynamics, 2, 6 elasto-hydrodynamic film thickness, 259 elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication (EHL), 20, 259, 260 electrical capacitance for oil film thickness, 275 methods, 64 electrical conductivity of rolling contacts, 380 electrical resistance methods, 64 electrographite, 229 /aluminium tribo-system, 321 /electrographite tribo-system, 327 /steel tribo-system, 327 electrolytic removal of contact films, 238 of thin films, 56 electron beam, the wavelength of, 50, 52 electron diffraction, 83, 123 analysis of contact films, 237 camera (HEED), 132 dynamical theory, 144 intensities, 139 kinematical theory of, 144 low energy (LEED), 136 reflection (RHEED), 124, 128 electron energy analyser electrostatic, XPS, 178 XPS, 177 electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), 200, 435 electron mean free paths, 269 electron micrographs, amorphous contrast of, 140, 259 electron microscopy, 35, 50 of replicas, 50, 53, 285, 400 scanning, 50, 56 transmission, 50, 51 electron probe microanalysis, (EPMA), 166 electron scattering, 139 electronic structure of the atom, 151 electrons elastic scattering of, 139 inelastic scattering of, 139 ellipsometry, 285 emission X-ray spectra, 158, 166 energy dispersion of X-rays, (EDX), 167, 418 EPMA applied to extreme-pressure lubrication, 206, 215 ester lubricant, 380 Ewald sphere construction, 103 excess surface temperature, 292, 293 exoelectron emission from failing ball bearings, 377 exponential decay formula, 269 exponential distribution of asperity heights, 17, 59 extinction distance, 145 extraction replicas, 404 479Index extreme-pressure additives, 74, 202 AES of pitted surfaces, 390 corrosive effects, 397 effect on pitting life, 364, 371 extreme-pressure lubricant films, 202 extreme-pressure oils, 20 extreme-pressure region, of lubrication, 203 face-centred cubic lattice, 96 failures in rolling-element bearings, detection of, 67 fatigue and impact wear in AGRs, 418 Fermi level, 183 ferrogram, 80 ferrography, 77, 79, 80 film thickness (measured by electron microscopy), 259, 267 filter inspection, 78 flake removal, 407 flash temperature, 7 flash temperature criterion, Blok's, 366 flat film X-ray diffraction camera, 105 flow pressure, reduced, 18 fluid film lubrication, 260 fluorescence, 155 fluorescent correction, 155 forensic use of physical analytical techniques, 445 form of a surface, 61 four-ball machine rolling, 202 sliding, 202 fretting corrosion, 3, 418 fretting wear, 3 friction dynamic, 1, 4 kinetic (also known as dynamic friction), 9 static, 9 fringe order, in optical interference, 264 fuel pump problems, 283 Gaussian distribution of asperity heights, 17, 59 gears, 260 scuffing of, 365 simulation by rolling discs, 64 general area high-energy electron diffraction, 133 Georgia Institute of Technology Tribology Laboratories, 10, 346, 349, 420 glancing angle, edge-irradiated, XRD technique, 112, 206 glide plane symmetries, 97 goniometer, 82 grain boundaries, 82 graphite, 5, 224 graphite contact films, 237 analysis by electron diffraction, 237 graphite fluoride, 226 graphite lubrication, as revealed by RHEED, 227 graphite structure hexagonal, 225 rhombohedral, 225 graphite surfaces effect of current on orientation, 235 orientation of, 227 grooving, 5 Haematite, X-ray powder data file card, 111 hardness, 9 heat, division of, 291 heat flow analysis and oxidational wear of steels, 296 heat flow method of deducing surface temperatures, 291 Hertzian compressive stress, maximum, 363 Hertzian diameter, 204 Hertzian equation for film thickness, 264 Hertzian pressure, 264 Hertzian radius, 261, 264 hexagonal close-packed structure, 96 hexagonal graphite, 225 hexagonal unit cell, 91, 92 high-energy electron diffraction (HEED) camera, 132 hot-spot temperature, 32, 287, 339 Ti/sapphire system (infra-red analysis), 452 hot-spots, optical analysis, 341 photographs of, 343, 344, 345 hot-pressed silicon nitride (HPSN), 352, 432 Huygen wavelets, 43 hydrodynamic lubrication, 6, 20, 259 and wear, 260 hydrogen spectra, Bohr theory of, 148 hydrotreating aviation fuel, 283 identification by X-ray diffraction, 110 identification by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, 183 image converting system (SEM), 63 image intensification, 404 immersion tests, reliability of, 277 impact wear in AGRs, 418 incompatibility, tribological, 400 inelastic scattering cross-section, 140 inelastic scattering of electrons, 139 infra-red analysis 480Index of HPSN/sapphire tribo-system, 353 of lubricated surfaces, 346 of unlubricated surfaces, 352, 451 infra-red camera, 352 infra-red detector, 291, 339 initial seizure load, 203 intensity of THEED patterns from random graphite, 248 from oriented graphite, 251, 257 intensity of X-rays scattered by a crystal, 119 scattered by an atom, 118 interferometer, Newton's rings, 44 multiple beam, 45, 263 optical, 35 interference, two-beam, 41, 263 interpenetration area, denned, 13 interplanar spacing, general expression for, 102 inversion, centre of, 83 inversion symmetry, 83 ion gun (XPS), 183 ionization potential, 171 iron mercaptide film, 205 islands of contact, 405 isotherms of a cam-lifter contact system, 351 Jost Committee, 1 journal bearings, 260 junction growth equation, Tabor's, 310 junction growth, in the wear of steels, 341 K-factor, wear, 29, 451 kinematical theory of electron diffraction, 144 kinetic friction (sometimes called dynamic friction), 9 kinetic viscosity, 7 lambda ratio, 365, 375 lamellar solids, 21, 224 lattices, crystal, 85 Laue zones, in electron diffraction patterns, 129 laws of friction, 1, 9 laws of wear, 24 lay of a surface, 61 lead/mild steel tribo-system, 340 least distance of distinct vision, 37 Lenard coefficient, modified, 174 lens aberrations (optical lenses), 37 Leonardo da Vinci, 1 life to first crack, 383 to first pit, 383 line contact tribo-systems, physical analysis of, 382 linear absorption coefficient, for X-rays, 161 linear oxidation, 31 load-carrying capacity, 204 Lorentz factor, 121 Lorentz-polarization factor (for X-rays), 121 low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), 136 lubricant films, the analysis of, 202 lubricated wear, 22 lubrication boundary, 19 definition, 19 mixed, 20 of rollers, 64 solid, 21 lubricious oxide, of titanium, 450 lubricity of graphitic materials, Bragg's hypothesis, 225 Lucas dwell test, 283 macroscopic symmetry elements, 82 magnetic crack detector, combined with SEM, 385 magnetic detection of pitting failures, 72, 383 magnetic perturbation techniques, 67 magnetic plug inspection, 78 maps, temperature, related to the wear of steels, 306 mass absorption coefficient, for X-rays, .161 maximum Hertzian compressive stress, point contact, 363 mean pressure, between contacting asperities, 11 mean tangential shear stress, 13 mechanical properties of sapphire, 347 of steel, 347 mechanical twinning model of graphitic friction, 233 mechanism of atomic transfer during wear, 23 of oxidational wear, TEM of replicas, 401, 406 of wear, 4, 26, 27 Meitner-Auger effect, 190 melt wear, 27, 291, 308, 310 mercaptide, iron, 205 microdensitometer traces, of X-ray diffraction patterns, 323 microfracture, 432 microscopic symmetry elements, 83, 95 microscopy electron, 35, 50 optical, 35, 51 481Index microscopy (cont.) scanning electron (SEM), 50, 56 transmission electron (TEM), 50 mild wear, 17, 24, 25 in the rolling four-ball machine, 380 Mild-oxidational wear, 27, 409, 431 of steels, as revealed by heat flow, 296 Miller indices, of crystal planes, 87 Miller—Bravais indices, for hexagonal crystals, 91 minimum oil film thickness in line contact, 372 in point contact, 372 mirror planes, of symmetry, 83 MIT School of Tribology, 377 mixed lubrication, 20 modified Auger parameter, 189 modified Lenard coefficient, 174 molybdenite (molybdenum disulphide), 5, 224, 226 mosaic model of a single crystal, 119 multiple asperity contact, 11 multiple beam interferometry, 45, 263 multiplicity of crystal planes, 121, 131 Newton's rings interferometer, 44 Newtonian fluid, 8 nominal surface, definition, 57 non-stoichiometric form of titanium oxide, 450 normal sections, through worn surfaces, 220 normalized oxidational wear rate, 310, 312 normalized pressure, 28, 307 normalized velocity, 28, 307 normalized wear rate, 28, 310 nuclear atom model, 149 nuclear reaction analysis (NRA), 200 number of contacts in terms of oxide plateau thickness, 413 numerical aperture, 40 one-ball-on-three-flats, four-ball machine geometry, 207 optical analysis of hot spots, 341 optical elasto-hydrodynamics, 262 optical emission spectrometer, 148 optical interferometry, 25, 259 optical microscopy, 35 and extreme-pressure lubrication, 206, 220 optical path difference, 43 optical resolving power, 37 optical spectra, 148 order of optical interference fringes, 264 organo-sulphur load-carrying compounds, 204 orientation effects in the wear of sapphire on steel, 447 orientation of graphitic surfaces, 227 effect of current, 235 orientation, preferred, 82, 131, 228 oxidation of oil, 276 parabolic, 31, 32 parabolic rate constant, 33 static, of stainless steels, 418, 419 oxidation temperature, 27, 33 oxidation-dominated wear mechanisms, 308, 310 oxidational constants static, or iron, 298 tribological, of iron, 299 oxidational growth rate laws, 31 oxidational theory of wear, 29 oxidational wear, 26, 292 computer analysis, 302 during lubricated sliding, 20 in tribo-systems, 399 linear, 456 mechanism, 26, 27, 401, 406 mild-, 27, 310 of 316 stainless steel tribo-systems, 417 of ferritic steel on austenitic steel, 408 of steels, 292, 330 of titanium on sapphire, 455 severe-, 27, 310 oxidation, linear, 31 oxide glaze, formed during wear, 30 oxide plateaux, formed during oxidational wear, 30 thickness by AES analysis, 429 thickness measurement by SEM, 408, 435 rhombohedral, 115 spinel, 115 oxygen content of oxidational wear plateau, AES analysis, 430 parabolic oxidation, 31, 32 rate constant, 34 particle counting, 77 Pascal-second, alternative SI unit of viscosity, 8 peak area sensitivity factor (XPS), 181 peak height sensitivity factor (XPS), 181 peak-to-valley roughness, 58 Peclet number, 293 phase change, of light wave, on reflection, 265 photoelectron emission (XPS), 175 photoelectron lines, in XPS, 183 physical analysis 482Index of line contact tribo-systems, 382 of point contact tribo-systems, 377 physical wedge, in journal bearing configuration, 20 Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces Laboratory (PCSL), 4, 9, 339 pitting failures, analysis by AES, 387 magnetic detection of, 72 pitting lives of gears and discs under mineral oils, 369 pitting of rolling contact under aqueous lubricants, 368 pitting, or contact fatigue, 3, 22, 360 pitting wear, dependence upon bearing number, 374 plain bearings, 2 Planck's constant, 52, 156 plastic deformation and the laws of friction, 10 plasticity-dominated wear mechanisms, 308, 312 plateaux formed during oxidational wear, 26, 27, 405, 408 in Ti surfaces worn against sapphire, 453 of oxide, in worn stainless steel surfaces, 426 of oxide, thickness measurement by SEM, 408, 413, 415 oxide, 30, 406 ploughing component of friction, 13 point surface origin, mode of failure, 385 poise, the SI unit of viscosity, 7 Poisson's ratio, 264 polarimetry, 446 polarization factor for X-rays, 121 pole figure from electron diffraction, 246, 247 related to preferred orientation, 241 pole figures, 85 pole of a crystal plane, 83 polymeric films, formation during wear, 280 polytetra-fluoroethylene, PTFE, 5 powder camera, 109 powder data file, for X-ray diffraction, 110 preferred orientation, 82, 131, 228 pressure, normalized, 28, 307 primary extinction of X-rays, 119 profile, 57 profilometry, 56 proportion of preferentially-oriented crystallites, 257 proportional analysis and electron diffraction, 319 by X-ray diffraction, 319 of wear debris by XRD, 319, 321, 330 prow mechanism, 405 quantitative analysis by AES, 194 quantitative electron probe microanalysis, 169 quantitative theories of wear, 297 quantitative X-ray photoelectron analysis (XPS), 180 quantum number, 150 K-values (in X-ray diffraction), 328, 331 fora-Fe, 331 for aluminium, 324 for carbon, 324 for copper, 328 for cuprous oxide, 328 for FeO, 331 for rhombohedral iron oxide, 331 for spinel iron oxide, 331 radioactive additives, 276 radioactive tracers, 200, 379 radius of an asperity in terms of oxide plateau thickness, 413 random orientation of crystallites, 131 Rayleigh criterion, 39 reactor graphite/copper tribo-system, 240, 321 real area of contact, 9, 296, 297 reciprocal lattice, 99 of a cubic unit cell, 125 of a thin crystal, 101 of an hexagonal lattice, 104 of an orthorhombic crystal, 101 reduced elastic modulus, 17, 261, 363 reduced flow pressure, 18 reduced radius of contact, 261, 371 reference sphere, 83 reflection electron diffraction (RHEED), 124, 128 reflection symmetry, 83 reflectivity of a surface, 47 refractive index, dependence upon pressure, 265 relative intensities of electron diffraction rings, 145 of X-ray diffraction rings, 123 relative sensitivity factor, 196, 391 removal of contact films, electrolytically, 238 replicas, for electron microscopy, 50, 53, 285 resistance, contact, 65 resolution limit, 39 resolution of an X-ray spectrometer, 154 483Index Reynold's equation, 260 RHEED, applied to the analysis of graphitic lubrication, 227 rheology, 7 rhombohedral graphite, 225 rhombohedral oxide, 115, 298 rollers lubrication of, 64 simulating gears, 64 rolling contact bearings failures of, 360 in nominal point contact, 360 rolling contact fatigue of ball bearings, 361 Unisteel tester, 362 rolling four-ball machine, 202, 361 rolling two-disc machine, 368 rolling wear constant, 380 for an ester lubricant, 382 for mineral oil, 382 for polythenylether, 382 root-mean-square roughness, 60 rotating cantilever machine, 290 rotational slip, 226 rotational symmetry, 83 roughness, 57 height, average, definition of, 57 peak-to-valley, 58 root-mean-square, 60 width cut-off, 57 roughnesses, table of typical values of surface, 59 running in, 5 Rutherford back-scattering (RBS), 200 SAED analysis of graphitic contact films, 241 Saggital formula, 45 sapphire/steel tribo-system, 447 sapphire/titanium tribo-system, 446, 450, 451 scanning Auger microprobe, 424 scanning electron microscope, tilt facility, 409 scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 50, 56, 61,62 and surface topography, 61 scattering cross-sections for electrons, 266 scattering of electrons, 139 elastic, 139 inelastic, 139 scattering of X-rays, 118 scoring, 5 screw axis symmetry, 97 scuffing, 5 and pitting of cams and tappets, 366 of gears, definition, 366 secondary extinction of X-rays, 119 secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), 200 seizure wear mechanism, 308, 310 selected area electron diffraction (SAED), 133, 134 ray diagram, 135 SEM analysis of worn silicon nitride surfaces, 435 SEM applied to extreme pressure lubrication, 206, 217 SEM, versus TEM of replicas, for studying worn surfaces, 406 sensitivity factor atomic (XPS), 181 peak area (XPS), 181 peak height (XPS), 181 severe metallic wear, 366 severe wear, 17, 310 of electrographite/aluminium tribo-system, 321 severe-oxidational wear, 27, 291, 310, 312, 400, 409 sheet texture, 241 short wavelength cut-off, 156 silicon carbide/iron tribosystems, 440 silicon nitride EELS analysis of amorphous wear tracks, 435 hot-pressed (HPSN), 432 simulation of gears by rolling discs, discussion of, 370 single asperity contact, theory of, 10 single crystal rotation camera, 112 sliding four-ball machine, 202 sliding textures, 246, 247 solid lubricant, 5 film thickness, 266 solid lubrication, 21 via adsorption, 227 via crystallite orientation, 227 space group, 97 spalling, 5 spectra (XPS) of standards relevant to wear under ZDDP, 278 spectrographic oil analysis, 78 spherical aberration, 37 spherical wear particles, 80, 445 spinel oxide, 115, 298 stainless steels, wear of, 315 standard infra-red curves for iron and iron oxides, 337 static friction, 1, 9 484Index static oxidation constants of iron, 298 static oxidation of stainless steels, 418, 419 stationary orbits, 149 steels, AISI 52100, wear of, 296 stereographic projection, 80, 81, 82, 94 stick-slip in iron/silicon carbide tribosystem, 441 stokes, the SI unit of kinematic viscosity, 8 stopping power, 171 Stribeck curve, 20, 284, 374 structure (or amplitude) factor for X-ray diffraction, 119 structure factor for electron diffraction, 144 stylus profilometer, 56 surface definition of, 57 nominal, 57 surface analysis by optical emission spectroscopy, 151 of failed ball bearings, 377 surface characteristics, 6, 59, 60 surface form, 61 surface lay, 61 surface reflectivity, 47 surface temperature, 27, 32, 291 as indicated by thermocouples, 339 direct measurement of, 338 surface texture, definition of, 57 surface waviness, 60 surfaces roughnesses, table of typical values of, 59 Tabor's junction growth equation, 310 talc, 224 Talysurf, 61 taper sections, 220 tappets, 260 TEM of replicas, versus SEM, for studying worn surfaces, 406 temperature contact, 29, 32 excess, 292 hot-spot, 32 oxidation, 27, 33 surface, 27, 33, 291 surface, direct measurement of, 338 temperature distribution at a cam-lifter contact, 351 temperature factor, Debye-Waller, 121 temperature maps, related to the wear of steels, 306 texture sheet, 241 sliding, 246 surface, definition of, 57 THEED analysis of graphitic contact films, 237 thermal conductivity of oxides, 414 thermal properties of sapphire, 347 of steel, 347 thermocouples, dynamic, 291 thickness of graphitic contact films (by TEM), 238 tilt facility, in the SEM, 409 titanium as a tribo-material, 450 titanium iodide, 224 titanium oxide (rutile), 450 as a lubricious oxide, 450 the non-stoichiometric form, 450 topography, 50 total life to pitting, 383 traction, 1 transition, from mild- to severe-oxidational wear, 409 transition loads in the wear of chromium steels, 318 transitions, crystalline, hot-spot temperature indicators?, 313 transitions in the wear rate, 25, 315 transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 50 of worn surfaces, 400 transparency thickness, 269 tribo-system 3.0%Cr-0.5%Mo steel/3.0%Cr-0.5%Mo steel, 400 316 stainless/316 stainless, 315, 399, 417 AISI 4340 steel/AISI 4340 steel, 400 AISI 52100 steel/AISI 52100 steel, 296 AISI 52100 steel/sapphire, 346 aluminium-bronze/steel, 284 chromium steel/chromium steel, 314, 318 constantan/mild steel, 340, 341 electrographite/aluminium, 321 electrographite/copper, 229 electrographite/electrographite, 327 electrographite/steel, 327 ferritic steel/austenitic stainless, 399, 408 graphite/copper, 227 hot-pressed silicon nitride/sapphire, 352 lead/mild steel, 340 low-alloy steel/low-alloy steel, 296, 330, 399 reactor graphite/copper, 240, 321 sapphire/steel, 447 sapphire/titanium, 446, 450 silicon carbide/iron, 440 silicon nitride/silicon nitride, 433 tool steel/sapphire, 342 oxidational wear in, 399 pitting failures of, 360 485Index tribological incompatibility, 400 tribological oxidation constants of iron, 299 tribology, definition of, 1 Tribology Group, Aston University, 383, 419 Tribology Laboratories, Georgia Institute of Technology, 10, 346, 349, 420 tribotesting, 6 triclinic unit cell, 90, 91 two-beam interference, 41, 263 two-disc machine, rolling, 368 ultra-mild wear, 27 unisteel rolling contact fatigue tester, 362 unit cell, of a crystal lattice, 85 valve sinkage, 408 velocity, normalized, 28, 307 viscosity, 2 dependence upon pressure, 260, 371 dynamic, 7 kinematic, 7 pressure coefficient of, 371 wave mechanics, 151 wavelength dispersion of X-rays, 167 wavelength of an electron beam, 50, 52 waviness of a surface, 60 wear as a fatigue process, 80 definition, 2 delaminational, 27 dry, 23 during pitting, effect of bearing number, 374 during pitting, effect of frictional elastic contact, 379 during pitting, effect of load, 379 mechanism maps, 27, 28, 304, 308, 399, 431 mild, 17, 24, 25 of chromium steels, 314, 318 of diesel engine exhaust valve materials, 408, 412 of silicon nitride, 433 of stainless steels, 315, 417 oxidational, 26, 292 wear particles, spherical, 80 wear patterns, 415, 419, 420 wear plateaux, heights of, 413 severe, 17, 24, 25 wear rate, 25 normalized, 28, 310 transitions, 25 wedge action, in hydrodynamics, 260 wedge-shaped film, 48 Weibull distribution function, cumulative, 365 Weibull distribution, simple formula, 69 Weibull plot, 69 Weiss zone law, 95 weld load, 203 wire-wool failures, 400 work function, 179, 183 Wulffnet, 85, 95 Wustite, 298 Wustite K-values, 331 X-ray absorption, 169 coefficient, 173 used for measuring oil film thickness, 275 X-ray diffraction (XRD), 93 Laue method, 446 X-ray diffraction camera cylindrical, 109 flat film, 105 X-ray diffraction intensities, 118 X-ray diffractometer, 116 X-ray filter, 162 X-ray fluorescence, 165 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 175 X-ray powder data file, 110 X-ray scattering, 118 X-ray spectra, 153, 98 characteristic, 157 characteristic, absorption, 160 characteristic, emission, 158 continuous, 156 theory of, 165 X-rays energy dispersion of, 167 wavelength dispersion of, 167 xenon sputtering, 287 XPS analysis of anti-wear surface films, 277 of worn 316 stainless steels, 421 of worn silicon carbide, 442 XPS standards for studying the anti-wear action of ZDDP, 278 XRD analysis of crystallite size, 239 XRD of debris formed in the wear of 316 stainless steel, 421 XRD technique, edge-irradiated, glancing angle, 114, 115 Young's modulus, 264 zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDPs)
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