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عدد المساهمات : 18961 التقييم : 35389 تاريخ التسجيل : 01/07/2009 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير منتدى هندسة الإنتاج والتصميم الميكانيكى
| موضوع: كتاب Shaft Alignment Handbook - Third Edition الثلاثاء 18 يونيو 2013, 8:58 pm | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Shaft Alignment Handbook - Third Edition L. L. Faulkner Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute and Department of Mechanical Engineering The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
ويتناول الموضوعات الأتية :
Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction to Shaft Alignment 1 1.1 Benefits of Good Machinery Alignment . 1 1.2 Consequences of Defective Alignment 1 1.2.1 What Happens to Rotating Machinery When It Is Misaligned a Little Bit, or Moderately, or Even Severely? . 3 1.3 Four Basic Ingredients Necessary to Insure Alignment Success 5 1.4 Eight Basic Steps to Align Machinery . 15 1.5 How Qualified Are You to Detect and Correct Machinery Misalignment? 19 1.6 Why Should People Be Tested on Their Alignment Skills? 19 1.7 Experience Evaluation for Machinery Alignment . 23 1.8 Who Needs to Be Trained and Qualified in Shaft Alignment? . 23 1.9 Assessing a Person’s Knowledge and Experience Level in Shaft Alignment 25 1.10 Alignment Qualification or Certification Testing . 26 1.11 Periodic Alignment Checks . 31 1.12 Alignment Record Keeping . 33 References 33 Chapter 2 Detecting Misalignment on Rotating Machinery . 35 2.1 The Four Maintenance Philosophies . 35 2.1.1 Breakdown or Run-to-Failure Maintenance . 35 2.1.2 Preventive or Time-Based Maintenance 36 2.1.3 Predictive or Condition-Based Maintenance . 36 2.1.4 Proactive or Prevention Maintenance 37 2.1.5 Industrial Maintenance Philosophy Survey Results 37 2.2 Types of Forces That Occur on Rotating Machinery . 37 2.2.1 How Mass, Stiffness, and Damping Affect the Vibration Response of Machinery 39 2.2.2 How Vibration Is Measured . 40 2.2.3 Time and Frequency Domain Vibration Information 44 2.2.4 Using Vibration Analysis to Detect Misalignment . 46 2.2.5 Relationship between Vibration Amplitude and Misalignment Severity . 48 2.2.6 Vibration Results from a Controlled Misalignment Test on a Training Demonstrator . 49 2.2.7 Vibration Results from a Controlled Misalignment Test on a Motor and Pump 52 2.2.8 Before and after Vibration Results Found on a Misaligned Motor and Pump . 63 2.2.9 Why Vibration Levels Often Decrease with Increasing Misalignment . 66 2.2.10 Known Vibration Spectral Signatures of Misaligned Flexible Couplings 712.2.11 Vibration Characteristics of Misaligned Machinery Supported in Sliding Type Bearings 71 2.2.12 Using Infrared Thermography to Detect Misalignment . 71 2.2.13 Power Loss due to Shaft Misalignment . 78 2.2.14 The Most Effective Way to Determine if Misalignment Exists 78 Bibliography . 86 Chapter 3 Foundations, Baseplates, Installation, and Piping Strain 89 3.1 Varying Composition of Earth’s Surface Layer . 90 3.2 How Do We Hold This Equipment in Place? . 90 3.2.1 Baseplates 92 3.2.1.1 Advantages . 92 3.2.1.2 Disadvantages . 94 3.2.2 Soleplates . 94 3.2.2.1 Advantages . 95 3.2.2.2 Disadvantages . 95 3.2.3 Frames 95 3.2.3.1 Advantages . 96 3.2.3.2 Disadvantages . 96 3.2.4 Monolithic Rigid Foundations . 97 3.2.4.1 Advantages . 98 3.2.4.2 Disadvantages . 98 3.2.4.3 Tips for Designing Good Foundations . 98 3.2.4.4 Tips on Installing Foundations and Rotating Machinery 99 3.2.5 Baseplates Attached to Concrete Floors . 100 3.2.5.1 Advantages 101 3.2.5.2 Disadvantages 101 3.2.6 Anchor Bolts . 102 3.2.7 Inertia Blocks . 103 3.2.7.1 Advantages 103 3.2.7.2 Disadvantages 103 3.2.8 Cement, Concrete, and Grout Basics . 104 3.2.9 Reinforced Concrete 105 3.2.10 Grouting 105 3.2.10.1 Traditional Grouting Methods 105 3.2.10.2 Suggested Grouting Procedure 108 3.2.11 Pregrouted and Solid Metal Baseplates 109 3.2.12 Case History of Installing a Baseplate Using Epoxy-Based Grout 111 3.3 Problems to Look for in Your Foundations and Baseplates . 129 3.3.1 Piping, Ductwork, and Conduit Strain 131 3.4 Checking for Excessive Static Piping Forces on Rotating Equipment 134 3.5 Visual Inspection Checklist . 134 3.6 How Long Will Rotating Machinery Stayed Accurately Aligned? . 135 References . 136Chapter 4 Flexible and Rigid Couplings 137 4.1 Coupling and Shaft Misalignment Tolerances—What Is the Difference? 137 4.2 The Role of the Flexible Coupling 138 4.3 What to Consider When Specifying a Flexible Coupling . 138 4.4 Types of Flexible Couplings 139 4.4.1 Mechanically Flexible Coupling Designs 141 4.4.1.1 Chain Couplings 141 4.4.1.2 Gear Couplings . 141 4.4.1.3 Metal Ribbon Couplings 151 4.4.1.4 Universal Joint Couplings . 152 4.4.1.5 Flexible Link . 153 4.4.1.6 Leaf Spring 155 4.4.1.7 Pin Drive 156 4.4.1.8 Elastomeric Couplings 156 4.4.2 Metallic Membrane=Disk-Type Coupling Designs 159 4.4.2.1 Diaphragm Couplings 159 4.4.2.2 Flexible Disc Couplings . 161 4.5 Rigid Coupling Design 162 4.6 Flexible Coupling Lubrication . 162 4.7 Coupling Installation . 163 4.8 Coupling Hub Attachment Methods 164 4.9 Keys and Keyways . 165 4.9.1 Types of Keys . 166 4.9.2 Straight Bore—Sliding Clearance with Keyways 168 4.9.3 Straight Bore—Interference Fit with Keyways . 168 4.9.4 Splined Shaft with End Lock Nut or Locking Plate . 170 4.9.5 Tapered Bore—Interference Fit with Keyways . 170 4.9.6 Coupling Hub to Shaft Surface Contact 171 4.9.7 Keyless Taper Bores . 172 4.9.8 Proper Interference Fit for Hydraulically Installed Coupling Hubs 172 4.9.9 Installation of Keyless Coupling Hubs Using Hydraulic Expansion 173 Bibliography 175 Chapter 5 Preliminary Alignment Checks . 179 5.1 Foundation and Base Plate Checks . 179 5.2 Dial Indicator Basics 180 5.3 Damaged, Worn, or Improperly Installed Machinery Component Checks 180 5.4 Runout 194 5.5 Machine Housing to Base Plate Interface Problems . 202 5.6 Verifying That the Soft Foot Has Been Eliminated . 205 5.6.1 Multiple Bolt–Multiple Indicator Method (Preferred Method) . 205 5.6.2 Multiple Bolt–Single Indicator Method (Second Choice) 207 5.6.3 Shaft Movement Method (Third Choice) . 212 5.6.4 Single Bolt–Single Indicator Method (Last Choice) 212 5.7 Other Methods for Correcting Soft Foot Problems . 214Chapter 6 Shaft Alignment Measuring Tools 219 6.1 Dimensional Measurement 220 6.2 Classes of Dimensional Measurement Tools and Sensors 220 6.2.1 Standard Tape Measures, Rulers, and Straightedges . 221 6.2.2 Feeler and Taper Gauges . 221 6.2.3 Slide Caliper . 223 6.2.4 Micrometers . 223 6.2.5 Dial Indicators . 225 6.2.6 Optical Alignment Tooling 226 6.2.7 Optical Parallax 229 6.2.8 Proximity Probes . 232 6.2.9 Linear Variable Differential Transformers . 233 6.2.10 Optical Encoders . 235 6.2.11 Lasers and Detectors 235 6.2.12 Charge Couple Devices . 241 6.2.13 Interferometers . 243 6.3 Sweeping 908 Arcs Twice to Measure a Misalignment Condition 245 6.4 Why Measurements Are Taken at 908 Intervals . 249 6.5 Rotating Both Shafts to Override a Runout Condition 249 6.6 Tips for Getting Good Alignment Measurements 251 6.7 Engaged Couplings Will Produce Measurement Errors . 252 6.8 Rim Indicator Setup Variations . 253 6.9 Rim Readings Indicate Twice the Centerline Offset 253 6.10 Validity Rule . 253 6.11 Partial Arc Mathematics 255 6.11.1 Partial Arc Measurement Procedure . 260 6.11.2 Partial Arc Measurement Sample Problem 262 6.11.3 Pitfalls of Partial Arc Measurements . 266 6.12 Bracket or Bar Sag 267 6.13 Xmas Tree Brackets and Face Sag . 269 6.14 Zero Sag Brackets . 271 6.15 Dial Indicator Shaft Alignment System Manufacturers . 272 6.15.1 Accushim Systems 273 6.15.2 A-Line Systems . 274 6.15.3 Benchmark System 276 6.15.4 Murray & Garig System 276 6.15.5 Peterson Alignment Tools Co. Systems . 277 6.15.6 Turvac Inc. Systems . 279 6.15.7 Update International System . 282 6.16 Dial Indicator Manufacturers Hardware Specifications . 282 Bibliography 288 Chapter 7 Correcting Misalignment . 291 7.1 Installing Machinery for the First Time 291 7.2 Bolt-Bound Conditions 292 7.3 Last Resort Measures for Bolt-Bound Conditions 2947.4 Machinery Positioning Basics . 296 7.4.1 Axial Spacing . 296 7.4.2 Making Corrections in the Vertical Direction 298 7.4.3 Lateral Movement 301 7.4.4 Vertical Movement . 304 7.5 Types of Movement Tools 304 7.5.1 Pry and Crowbars and Wedges 305 7.5.2 Comealongs and Chain Falls 306 7.5.3 Hydraulic Jacks 306 7.5.4 Permanent Jackscrews . 307 7.5.5 Portable Jackscrews and Machinery Positioners 307 7.6 What to Do When Things Are Not Working 307 7.7 Misalignment Rantings 315 Bibliography 317 Chapter 8 Alignment Modeling Basics . 319 8.1 Graphing and Modeling Alignment Techniques 321 8.2 Basic Alignment Models . 321 8.3 Scaling the Drive System onto the Alignment Model 323 8.4 Cardinal Alignment Graphing and Modeling Rules . 325 8.4.1 Plot Measurements That Have Been Compensated for Bracket Sag 325 8.4.2 Rim Readings Are Always Twice the Offset Amount 326 8.4.3 Plus Means ‘‘Low’’ and Minus Means ‘‘High’’ . 326 8.4.4 Zero the Indicator on the Side That Is Pointing toward the Top of the Graph Paper . 327 8.4.5 Whatever Shaft the Dial Indicator Is Taking Readings on Is the Shaft That You Want to Draw On the Graph Paper . 328 8.4.6 Determining Corrective Moves to Make on One Machine from the Alignment Model 332 8.4.7 Overlay Line or Final Desired Alignment Line . 333 8.4.8 Superimpose Your Boundary Conditions, Movement Restrictions, and Allowable Movement Envelope 334 8.4.8.1 Lateral Movement Restrictions . 335 8.4.8.2 Where Did the Stationary–Movable Alignment Concept Come From? 337 8.4.8.3 Solving Piping Fit-Up Problems with the Overlay Line 338 Bibliography 339 Chapter 9 Defining Misalignment: Alignment and Coupling Tolerances . 341 9.1 What Exactly Is Shaft Alignment? 341 9.2 Does Level and Aligned Mean the Same Thing? . 341 9.3 Measuring Angles 342 9.4 Types of Misalignment 343 9.5 Definition of Shaft Misalignment 343 9.6 Checking the Misalignment Tolerance . 347 9.7 Shaft versus Coupling Alignment 348 9.8 How Straight Are Rotating Machinery Shafts? 349Chapter 10 Reverse Indicator Method 353 10.1 Basic Mathematical Equations for the Reverse Indicator Method 353 10.2 Modeling Reverse Indicator Method Using the ‘‘Point-to-Point’’ Technique 355 10.3 Rim Readings Are Always Twice the Offset Amount . 358 10.4 Modeling the Reverse Indicator Method Using the Line-to-Point Technique . 362 Bibliography 366 Chapter 11 Face and Rim Methods 369 11.1 Mathematical Relationship in Machinery Alignment . 369 11.2 Sixteen-Point Method 370 11.3 Twenty-Point Method 371 11.4 Problems with Taking Face Readings 374 11.4.1 Preset the Axial Position 376 11.4.2 Compensate for Axial Movement with Stationary Indicators . 376 11.4.3 Compensate for Axial Movement with Rotating Indicators 376 11.5 Modeling the Face and Rim Method . 376 11.6 Artificial Face Surface 385 References . 388 Chapter 12 Double Radial Method . 389 12.1 Basic Mathematical Equations for the Double Radial Method 391 12.2 Modeling the Double Radial Method 393 Chapter 13 Shaft to Coupling Spool Method . 397 13.1 Basic Mathematical Equations for the Shaft to Coupling Spool Method 397 13.2 Modeling the Shaft to Coupling Spool Method . 398 Chapter 14 Face–Face Method . 405 14.1 Basic Mathematical Equations for the Face–Face Method . 405 14.2 Modeling the Face–Face Method . 405 Chapter 15 Electronic and Electro-Optical Shaft Alignment Systems 411 15.1 Optical Encoder System 411 15.2 Laser–Detector Systems . 412 15.2.1 Suggestions for Successful Use of Your Laser Alignment System 414 15.2.2 Damalini Systems . 416 15.2.3 Emerson Process Management System . 418 15.2.4 Fixturlaser Systems 418 15.2.5 Hamar Systems . 420 15.2.6 Pru¨ftechnik Systems . 421 15.2.7 SPM Instrument Inc. System . 424 15.2.8 Vibralign System 42515.3 Laser System Manufacturers Hardware Specifications 426 15.4 Laser System Manufacturers Software Specifications . 444 References . 469 Chapter 16 Measuring and Compensating for Off-Line to Running Machinery Movement . 471 16.1 What Type of Machinery Is Likely to Change Equipment’s Position When Running? . 471 16.2 What Causes Machinery Movement to Occur? . 472 16.3 Conducting the Off-Line to Running Machinery Movement Survey . 473 16.4 Taking ‘‘Hot’’ Alignment Measurements Immediately after Shutdown . 473 16.5 Four General Categories of OL2R Measurements 474 16.5.1 Movement of the Centerline of the Machine Cases with Respect to Its Baseplate or Frame 476 16.5.2 Movement of the Centerline of the Machine Cases with Respect to Some Remote Reference or Observation Point 476 16.5.3 Movement of One Machine Case with Respect to Another Machine Case 476 16.5.4 Movement of One Shaft with Respect to Another Shaft 477 16.6 Calculating Machine Case Thermal Expansion Using the Strain Equation 477 16.6.1 Using Infrared Thermographic Equipment to Observe Thermal Profiles of Rotating Equipment 479 16.7 Inside Micrometer–Tooling Ball–Angle Measurement Devices . 481 16.8 Vertical, Lateral, and Axial OL2R Movement . 489 16.9 Proximity Probes with Water-Cooled Stands 497 16.10 Optical Alignment Equipment . 499 16.11 Optical Parallax 502 16.12 Using Optical Tooling for Measuring Machinery Movement 507 16.13 Establishing Reference Planes . 510 16.14 Alignment Bars with Proximity Probes . 515 16.15 Applying Laser–Detector Systems for OL2R Measurements . 522 16.16 Ball–Rod–Tubing Connector System 531 16.17 Vernier–Strobe System . 535 16.18 Instrumented Coupling Systems 538 16.18.1 Aligning Rotating Machinery to Compensate for OL2R Machinery Movement 539 16.18.2 Determining the Desired Off-Line Shaft Positions When Using the Machine Case to Baseplate or Machine Case to Remote Reference Point Methods . 540 16.18.3 Determining the Desired Off-Line Shaft Positions When Using the Machine Case to Machine Case Methods . 542 16.18.4 How to Determine the ‘‘Shoot for’’ Off-Line Dial Indicator Readings (Also Known as ‘‘Target Values’’) 542 16.18.4.1 Reverse Indicator Shoot for Dial Indicator Readings 543 16.18.4.2 Face–Rim Shoot for Dial Indicator Readings 548 16.18.4.3 Double Radial Shoot for Dial Indicator Readings 54816.18.4.4 Shaft to Coupling Spool Shoot for Dial Indicator Readings 548 16.18.4.5 Face–Face Shoot for Dial Indicator Readings . 548 16.19 Aligning Shafts for Running Conditions (Also Known as Running Alignment or ‘‘Hot Operating Alignment’’) 548 Bibliography 560 Chapter 17 Aligning Multiple-Element Drive Systems . 563 17.1 Multiple-Element Drive Train Alignment Laws . 564 17.2 Multiple-Element Drive Train: Graphing and Modeling Techniques . 566 17.3 Multiple-Element Drive Train Modeling—One Set of Shafts at a Time 567 17.4 Multiple-Element Drive System Graphing—Modeling All the Shafts at One Time 568 17.5 Mixing Different Alignment Measurement Methods . 577 17.6 Modeling Right-Angle Drive Systems 578 17.7 Final Comments on Aligning Multiple-Element Drive Trains . 588 References . 590 Chapter 18 Aligning V-Belt Drives . 591 18.1 Belt Drive Systems—Advantages and Disadvantages 591 18.2 V-Belt Standards Information . 591 18.3 Sheave Information . 593 18.4 V-Belt Recommendations and Rules of Thumb 593 18.5 Sheave and Belt Wear . 594 18.6 Adjusting Belt Tension 595 18.7 Preliminary Alignment Checks for V-Belts and Sheaves . 597 18.8 Types of Sheave Misalignment Conditions 599 18.9 Using a Straightedge to Measure Misalignment 600 18.10 Measuring the Misalignment at the Sheaves . 604 18.11 V-Belt Machine Measurements 604 18.12 Modeling V-Belt Alignment Problems . 605 18.13 V-Belt Alignment Modeling Sample Problem 606 18.14 Laser Alignment Systems for V-Belts and Sheaves 613 Bibliography 618 Chapter 19 Bore Alignment 619 19.1 Aligning a Rotating Shaft with a Stationary Hollow Cylinder 619 19.2 Aligning Two Hollow Cylinders 622 19.3 Basic Measurement Principles and Nomenclature 626 19.4 Cylinder Alignment Procedure 627 19.5 Bucking in Process 631 19.6 Correcting the Misalignment . 635 19.7 Laser Bore Alignment Systems . 635Chapter 20 Parallel Alignment 639 20.1 Rough Alignment of Parallel Rolls 639 20.2 Using Optical Alignment Equipment for Roll Parallelism 641 20.3 Aligning the Rolls in the Vertical (Up=Down) Direction 641 20.4 Aligning the Rolls in the Lateral (Side to Side) Direction 642 20.5 Using Laser–Detector Systems to Measure Parallelism 651 20.6 Using Roll, Pitch, and Yaw Positions of Rolls to Measure Parallelism . 651 20.7 Aligning Rolls and Their Drives—Sample Problem 653 Chapter 21 Alignment Considerations for Specific Types of Machinery 667 21.1 Drivers . 668 21.1.1 Electric Motors . 668 21.1.1.1 Additional Information on Electric Motors 670 21.1.2 Steam Turbines . 670 21.1.2.1 Additional Information on Steam Turbines 671 21.1.3 Gas Turbines 672 21.1.3.1 Additional Information on Gas Turbines . 673 21.1.4 Internal Combustion Engines 673 21.1.4.1 Additional Information on Internal Combustion Engines . 674 21.1.5 Horizontally Mounted Centrifugal Pumps . 674 21.1.5.1 Additional Information on Horizontally Mounted Centrifugal Pumps 677 21.1.6 Vertically Mounted Centrifugal Pumps . 678 21.1.6.1 Additional Information on Vertically Mounted Centrifugal Pumps 691 21.1.7 Blowers and Fans . 692 21.1.7.1 Additional Information on Horizontally Mounted Blowers and Fans . 697 21.1.8 Compressors . 698 21.1.8.1 Additional Information on Compressors 701 21.1.9 Horizontally Mounted Electric Generators 702 21.1.9.1 Additional Information on Electric Generators . 705 21.1.10 Vertically Mounted Electric Generators 707 21.1.11 Speed Changing Devices—Gearboxes and Fluid Drives . 719 21.1.11.1 Additional Information on Gearboxes and Fluid Drives . 720 21.1.12 Cooling Tower Fan Drives 722 21.1.13 Aligning Ship Rudders . 724 Bibliography 734 Chapter 22 The History of Machinery Alignment 735 Bibliography 751 Appendices . 753 Appendix A Machinery Data Card 753 Appendix B Sample Preliminary Alignment Record Sheet . 755Appendix C Sample Installation and Shaft Alignment 757 Appendix D Torque Values (SAE Grade 2 Bolts) . 759 Appendix E Torque Values (SAE Grade 5 Bolts) . 761 Appendix F Torque Values (SAE Grade 8 Bolts) . 763 Appendix G Shaft Alignment and Related U.S. Patents 765 Appendix H Shaft Alignment Training Questionnaire 769 Appendix I Shaft Alignment Services Questionnaire 775 Appendix J Alignment Internet Web Sites 781 Appendix K Single Plane Balancing . 783 Index . 7911 Introduction to Shaft Al
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rambomenaa كبير مهندسين
عدد المساهمات : 2041 التقييم : 3379 تاريخ التسجيل : 21/01/2012 العمر : 47 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير الصيانة بشركة تصنيع ورق الجامعة : حلوان
| موضوع: رد: كتاب Shaft Alignment Handbook - Third Edition الثلاثاء 18 يونيو 2013, 9:09 pm | |
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جزاك الله خير الجزاء وجعلها الله فى ميزان حسناتك |
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Admin مدير المنتدى
عدد المساهمات : 18961 التقييم : 35389 تاريخ التسجيل : 01/07/2009 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير منتدى هندسة الإنتاج والتصميم الميكانيكى
| موضوع: رد: كتاب Shaft Alignment Handbook - Third Edition الثلاثاء 18 يونيو 2013, 9:31 pm | |
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| موضوع: رد: كتاب Shaft Alignment Handbook - Third Edition الأربعاء 06 أبريل 2016, 10:56 pm | |
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Admin مدير المنتدى
عدد المساهمات : 18961 التقييم : 35389 تاريخ التسجيل : 01/07/2009 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير منتدى هندسة الإنتاج والتصميم الميكانيكى
| موضوع: رد: كتاب Shaft Alignment Handbook - Third Edition السبت 09 أبريل 2016, 12:00 pm | |
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