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| موضوع: كتاب Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering - Science, Process, Applications الجمعة 08 يونيو 2012, 2:55 pm | |
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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering - Science, Process, Applications Sixth Edition R. E. Smallman, CBE,DSc, FRS, FREng, FIM R. J. Bishop, PhD, CEng, MIM
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents Preface . xi 1. The Structure and Bonding of Atoms 1 1.1 The Realm of Materials Science 1 1.2 The Free Atom . 2 1.2.1 The Four Electron Quantum Numbers 2 1.2.2 Nomenclature for Electronic States 3 1.3 The Periodic Table . 4 1.4 Interatomic Bonding in Materials 7 1.5 Bonding and Energy Levels . 9 2. Atomic Arrangements in Materials . 11 2.1 The Concept of Ordering . 11 2.2 Crystal Lattices and Structures 12 2.3 Crystal Directions and Planes 13 2.4 Stereographic Projection 16 2.5 Selected Crystal Structures . 18 2.5.1 Pure Metals . 18 2.5.2 Diamond and Graphite . 21 2.5.3 Coordination in Ionic Crystals . 22 2.5.4 AB-Type Compounds . 24 2.5.5 Silica . 24 2.5.6 Alumina . 26 2.5.7 Complex Oxides 26 2.5.8 Silicates . 27 2.6 Inorganic Glasses 30 2.6.1 Network Structures in Glasses . 30vi Contents 2.6.2 Classification of Constituent Oxides . 31 2.7 Polymeric Structures 32 2.7.1 Thermoplastics 32 2.7.2 Elastomers 35 2.7.3 Thermosets 36 2.7.4 Crystallinity in Polymers . 38 3. Structural Phases; Their Formation and Transitions 42 3.1 Crystallization from the Melt . 42 3.1.1 Freezing of a Pure Metal 42 3.1.2 Plane-Front and Dendritic Solidification at a Cooled Surface 43 3.1.3 Forms of Cast Structure . 44 3.1.4 Gas Porosity and Segregation 45 3.1.5 Directional Solidification . 46 3.1.6 Production of Metallic Single Crystals for Research 47 3.2 Principles and Applications of Phase Diagrams 48 3.2.1 The Concept of a Phase 48 3.2.2 The Phase Rule . 48 3.2.3 Stability of Phases . 49 3.2.4 Two-Phase Equilibria . 52 3.2.5 Three-Phase Equilibria and Reactions . 56 3.2.6 Intermediate Phases 58 3.2.7 Limitations of Phase Diagrams . 59 3.2.8 Some Key Phase Diagrams . 60 3.2.9 Ternary Phase Diagrams . 64 3.3 Principles of Alloy Theory 73 3.3.1 Primary Substitutional Solid Solutions 73 3.3.2 Interstitial Solid Solutions . 76 3.3.3 Types of Intermediate Phases 76 3.3.4 Order-Disorder Phenomena . 79 3.4 The Mechanism of Phase Changes . 80 3.4.1 Kinetic Considerations . 80Contents vii 3.4.2 Homogeneous Nucleation 81 3.4.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation . 82 3.4.4 Nucleation in Solids . 82 4. Defects in Solids 84 4.1 Types of Imperfection 84 4.2 Point Defects 84 4.2.1 Point Defects in Metals 84 4.2.2 Point Defects in Non-Metallic Crystals 86 4.2.3 Irradiation of Solids 87 4.2.4 Point Defect Concentration and Annealing . 89 4.3 Line Defects . 90 4.3.1 Concept of a Dislocation 90 4.3.2 Edge and Screw Dislocations . 91 4.3.3 The Burgers Vector 91 4.3.4 Mechanisms of Slip and Climb . 92 4.3.5 Strain Energy Associated with Dislocations 95 4.3.6 Dislocations in Ionic Structures 97 4.4 Planar Defects . 97 4.4.1 Grain Boundaries . 97 4.4.2 Twin Boundaries 98 4.4.3 Extended Dislocations and Stacking Faults in ClosePacked Crystals . 99 4.5 Volume Defects 104 4.5.1 Void Formation and Annealing . 104 4.5.2 Irradiation and Voiding . 104 4.5.3 Voiding and Fracture 104 4.6 Defect Behaviour in Some Real Materials . 105 4.6.1 Dislocation Vector Diagrams and the Thompson Tetrahedron . 105 4.6.2 Dislocations and Stacking Faults in fcc Structures 106 4.6.3 Dislocations and Stacking Faults in cph Structures . 108 4.6.4 Dislocations and Stacking Faults in bcc Structures . 112viii Contents 4.6.5 Dislocations and Stacking Faults in Ordered Structures 113 4.6.6 Dislocations and Stacking Faults in Ceramics 115 4.6.7 Defects in Crystalline Polymers 116 4.6.8 Defects in Glasses . 117 4.7 Stability of Defects . 117 4.7.1 Dislocation Loops 117 4.7.2 Voids . 119 4.7.3 Nuclear Irradiation Effects 119 5. The Characterization of Materials . 125 5.1 Tools of Characterization . 125 5.2 Light Microscopy 126 5.2.1 Basic Principles . 126 5.2.2 Selected Microscopical Techniques 127 5.3 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis . 133 5.3.1 Production and Absorption of X-Rays . 133 5.3.2 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals 134 5.3.3 X-Ray Diffraction Methods . 135 5.3.4 Typical Interpretative Procedures for Diffraction Patterns . 138 5.4 Analytical Electron Microscopy 142 5.4.1 Interaction of an Electron Beam with a Solid . 142 5.4.2 The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) . 143 5.4.3 The Scanning Electron Microscope 144 5.4.4 Theoretical Aspects of TEM . 146 5.4.5 Chemical Microanalysis . 150 5.4.6 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) . 152 5.4.7 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) . 154 5.5 Observation of Defects 154 5.5.1 Etch Pitting 154 5.5.2 Dislocation Decoration . 155 5.5.3 Dislocation Strain Contrast in TEM . 155Contents ix 5.5.4 Contrast from Crystals . 157 5.5.5 Imaging of Dislocations 157 5.5.6 Imaging of Stacking Faults . 158 5.5.7 Application of Dynamical Theory 158 5.5.8 Weak-Beam Microscopy 160 5.6 Specialized Bombardment Techniques . 161 5.6.1 Neutron Diffraction . 161 5.6.2 Synchrotron Radiation Studies . 162 5.6.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) . 163 5.7 Thermal Analysis . 164 5.7.1 General Capabilities of Thermal Analysis . 164 5.7.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis . 164 5.7.3 Differential Thermal Analysis 165 5.7.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry . 165 6. The Physical Properties of Materials 168 6.1 Introduction 168 6.2 Density . 168 6.3 Thermal Properties 168 6.3.1 Thermal Expansion 168 6.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity . 170 6.3.3 The Specific Heat Curve and Transformations 171 6.3.4 Free Energy of Transformation . 171 6.4 Diffusion . 172 6.4.1 Diffusion Laws . 172 6.4.2 Mechanisms of Diffusion 174 6.4.3 Factors Affecting Diffusion . 175 6.5 Anelasticity and Internal Friction 176 6.6 Ordering in Alloys . 177 6.6.1 Long-Range and Short-Range Order 177 6.6.2 Detection of Ordering . 178 6.6.3 Influence of Ordering Upon Properties . 179x Contents 6.7 Electrical Properties . 181 6.7.1 Electrical Conductivity 181 6.7.2 Semiconductors . 183 6.7.3 Superconductivity 185 6.7.4 Oxide Superconductors 187 6.8 Magnetic Properties . 188 6.8.1 Magnetic Susceptibility . 188 6.8.2 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 189 6.8.3 Ferromagnetism . 189 6.8.4 Magnetic Alloys 191 6.8.5 Anti-Ferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 192 6.9 Dielectric Materials . 193 6.9.1 Polarization 193 6.9.2 Capacitors and Insulators 193 6.9.3 Piezoelectric Materials . 194 6.9.4 Pyroelectric and Ferroelectric Materials 194 6.10 Optical Properties 195 6.10.1 Reflection, Absorption and Transmission Effects 195 6.10.2 Optical Fibres 195 6.10.3 Lasers . 195 6.10.4 Ceramic 'Windows' . 196 6.10.5 Electro-Optic Ceramics 196 7. Mechanical Behaviour of Materials 197 7.1 Mechanical Testing Procedures . 197 7.1.1 Introduction 197 7.1.2 The Tensile Test 197 7.1.3 Indentation Hardness Testing . 199 7.1.4 Impact Testing . 199 7.1.5 Creep Testing 199 7.1.6 Fatigue Testing 200 7.1.7 Testing of Ceramics . 200Contents xi 7.2 Elastic Deformation 201 7.2.1 Elastic Deformation of Metals . 201 7.2.2 Elastic Deformation of Ceramics 203 7.3 Plastic Deformation 203 7.3.1 Slip and Twinning 203 7.3.2 Resolved Shear Stress 203 7.3.3 Relation of Slip to Crystal Structure 204 7.3.4 Law of Critical Resolved Shear Stress 205 7.3.5 Multiple Slip . 205 7.3.6 Relation Between Work-Hardening and Slip . 206 7.4 Dislocation Behaviour During Plastic Deformation 207 7.4.1 Dislocation Mobility 207 7.4.2 Variation of Yield Stress with Temperature and Strain Rate 208 7.4.3 Dislocation Source Operation . 209 7.4.4 Discontinuous Yielding . 211 7.4.5 Yield Points and Crystal Structure 212 7.4.6 Discontinuous Yielding in Ordered Alloys . 214 7.4.7 Solute-Dislocation Interaction . 214 7.4.8 Dislocation Locking and Temperature 216 7.4.9 Inhomogeneity Interaction 217 7.4.10 Kinetics of Strain-Ageing 217 7.4.11 Influence of Grain Boundaries on Plasticity 218 7.4.12 Superplasticity . 220 7.5 Mechanical Twinning . 221 7.5.1 Crystallography of Twinning . 221 7.5.2 Nucleation and Growth of Twins . 222 7.5.3 Effect of Impurities on Twinning . 223 7.5.4 Effect of Prestrain on Twinning . 223 7.5.5 Dislocation Mechanism of Twinning 223 7.5.6 Twinning and Fracture . 224 7.6 Strengthening and Hardening Mechanisms . 224 7.6.1 Point Defect Hardening 224xii Contents 7.6.2 Work-Hardening . 226 7.6.3 Development of Preferred Orientation 232 7.7 Macroscopic Plasticity 235 7.7.1 Tresca and Von Mises Criteria . 235 7.7.2 Effective Stress and Strain . 236 7.8 Annealing . 237 7.8.1 General Effects of Annealing 237 7.8.2 Recovery . 237 7.8.3 Recrystallization . 239 7.8.4 Grain Growth . 242 7.8.5 Annealing Twins 243 7.8.6 Recrystallization Textures 245 7.9 Metallic Creep 245 7.9.1 Transient and Steady-State Creep . 245 7.9.2 Grain Boundary Contribution to Creep 247 7.9.3 Tertiary Creep and Fracture . 249 7.9.4 Creep-Resistant Alloy Design . 249 7.10 Deformation Mechanism Maps 251 7.11 Metallic Fatigue 252 7.11.1 Nature of Fatigue Failure . 252 7.11.2 Engineering Aspects of Fatigue 252 7.11.3 Structural Changes Accompanying Fatigue 254 7.11.4 Crack Formation and Fatigue Failure . 256 7.11.5 Fatigue at Elevated Temperatures . 258 8. Strengthening and Toughening 259 8.1 Introduction 259 8.2 Strengthening of Non-Ferrous Alloys by Heat-Treatment 259 8.2.1 Precipitation-Hardening of Al-Cu Alloys 259 8.2.2 Precipitation-Hardening of Al-Ag Alloys 263 8.2.3 Mechanisms of Precipitation-Hardening . 265 8.2.4 Vacancies and Precipitation . 268 8.2.5 Duplex Ageing . 271Contents xiii 8.2.6 Particle-Coarsening . 272 8.2.7 Spinodal Decomposition 273 8.3 Strengthening of Steels by Heat-Treatment . 274 8.3.1 Time - Temperature - Transformation Diagrams . 274 8.3.2 Austenite-Pearlite Transformation 276 8.3.3 Austenite-Martensite Transformation 278 8.3.4 Austenite-Bainite Transformation . 282 8.3.5 Tempering of Martensite 282 8.3.6 Thermo-Mechanical Treatments . 283 8.4 Fracture and Toughness 284 8.4.1 Griffith Micro-Crack Criterion 284 8.4.2 Fracture Toughness . 285 8.4.3 Cleavage and The Ductile-Brittle Transition 288 8.4.4 Factors Affecting Brittleness of Steels 289 8.4.5 Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steels 291 8.4.6 Intergranular Fracture 291 8.4.7 Ductile Failure 292 8.4.8 Rupture . 293 8.4.9 Voiding and Fracture at Elevated Temperatures . 293 8.4.10 Fracture Mechanism Maps . 294 8.4.11 Crack Growth under Fatigue Conditions . 295 9. Modern Alloy Developments . 297 9.1 Introduction 297 9.2 Commercial Steels . 297 9.2.1 Plain Carbon Steels . 297 9.2.2 Alloy Steels 298 9.2.3 Maraging Steels . 299 9.2.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels 299 9.2.5 Dual-Phase (DP) Steels . 300 9.2.6 Mechanically Alloyed (MA) Steels 301 9.2.7 Designation of Steels . 302 9.3 Cast Irons 303xiv Contents 9.4 Superalloys 305 9.4.1 Basic Alloying Features 305 9.4.2 Nickel-Based Superalloy Development . 306 9.4.3 Dispersion-Hardened Superalloys 307 9.5 Titanium Alloys . 308 9.5.1 Basic Alloying and Heat-Treatment Features 308 9.5.2 Commercial Titanium Alloys . 310 9.5.3 Processing of Titanium Alloys 312 9.6 Structural Intermetallic Compounds . 312 9.6.1 General Properties of Intermetallic Compounds 312 9.6.2 Nickel Aluminides 312 9.6.3 Titanium Aluminides . 314 9.6.4 Other Intermetallic Compounds 315 9.7 Aluminium Alloys 316 9.7.1 Designation of Aluminium Alloys 316 9.7.2 Applications of Aluminium Alloys 316 9.7.3 Aluminium-Lithium Alloys . 317 9.7.4 Processing Developments 317 10. Ceramics and Glasses . 320 10.1 Classification of Ceramics 320 10.2 General Properties of Ceramics . 321 10.3 Production of Ceramic Powders 322 10.4 Selected Engineering Ceramics . 323 10.4.1 Alumina . 323 10.4.2 From Silicon Nitride to Sialons . 325 10.4.3 Zirconia . 330 10.4.4 Glass-Ceramics . 331 10.4.5 Silicon Carbide 334 10.4.6 Carbon 337 10.5 Aspects of Glass Technology 345 10.5.1 Viscous Deformation of Glass 345 10.5.2 Some Special Glasses . 346Contents xv 10.5.3 Toughened and Laminated Glasses . 346 10.6 The Time-Dependency of Strength in Ceramics and Glasses . 348 11. Plastics and Composites . 351 11.1 Utilization of Polymeric Materials . 351 11.1.1 Introduction 351 11.1.2 Mechanical Aspects of Tg . 351 11.1.3 The Role of Additives . 352 11.1.4 Some Applications of Important Plastics . 353 11.1.5 Management of Waste Plastics 354 11.2 Behaviour of Plastics During Processing . 355 11.2.1 Cold-Drawing and Crazing . 355 11.2.2 Processing Methods for Thermoplastics . 356 11.2.3 Production of Thermosets 357 11.2.4 Viscous Aspects of Melt Behaviour 358 11.2.5 Elastic Aspects of Melt Behaviour 359 11.2.6 Flow Defects 360 11.3 Fibre-Reinforced Composite Materials 361 11.3.1 Introduction to Basic Structural Principles . 361 11.3.2 Types of Fibre-Reinforced Composite 366 12. Corrosion and Surface Engineering . 376 12.1 The Engineering Importance of Surfaces 376 12.2 Metallic Corrosion 376 12.2.1 Oxidation at High Temperatures . 376 12.2.2 Aqueous Corrosion 382 12.3 Surface Engineering 387 12.3.1 The Coating and Modification of Surfaces 387 12.3.2 Surface Coating by Vapour Deposition . 388 12.3.3 Surface Coating by Particle Bombardment . 391 12.3.4 Surface Modification with High-Energy Beams . 391xvi Contents 13. Biomaterials 394 13.1 Introduction 394 13.2 Requirements for Biomaterials . 394 13.3 Dental Materials . 395 13.3.1 Cavity Fillers 395 13.3.2 Bridges, Crowns and Dentures . 396 13.3.3 Dental Implants 397 13.4 The Structure of Bone and Bone Fractures . 397 13.5 Replacement Joints . 398 13.5.1 Hip Joints . 398 13.5.2 Shoulder Joints 399 13.5.3 Knee Joints 399 13.5.4 Finger Joints and Hand Surgery . 399 13.6 Reconstructive Surgery 400 13.6.1 Plastic Surgery 400 13.6.2 Maxillofacial Surgery 401 13.6.3 Ear Implants 402 13.7 Biomaterials for Heart Repair . 402 13.7.1 Heart Valves 402 13.7.2 Pacemakers . 403 13.7.3 Artificial Arteries . 403 13.8 Tissue Repair and Growth . 403 13.9 Other Surgical Applications 404 13.10 Ophthalmics . 404 13.11 Drug Delivery Systems 405 14. Materials for Sports . 406 14.1 The Revolution in Sports Products 406 14.2 The Tradition of Using Wood . 406 14.3 Tennis Rackets 407 14.3.1 Frames for Tennis Rackets 407 14.3.2 Strings for Tennis Rackets . 408Contents xvii 14.4 Golf Clubs 409 14.4.1 Kinetic Aspects of a Golf Stroke . 409 14.4.2 Golf Club Shafts . 410 14.4.3 Wood-Type Club Heads . 410 14.4.4 Iron-Type Club Heads 411 14.4.5 Putting Heads 411 14.5 Archery Bows and Arrows 411 14.5.1 The Longbow . 411 14.5.2 Bow Design . 411 14.5.3 Arrow Design . 412 14.6 Bicycles for Sport . 413 14.6.1 Frame Design 413 14.6.2 Joining Techniques for Metallic Frames 414 14.6.3 Frame Assembly Using Epoxy Adhesives . 414 14.6.4 Composite Frames . 415 14.6.5 Bicycle Wheels 415 14.7 Fencing Foils 415 14.8 Materials for Snow Sports 416 14.8.1 General Requirements . 416 14.8.2 Snowboarding Equipment 416 14.8.3 Skiing Equipment . 417 14.9 Safety Helmets . 417 14.9.1 Function and Form of Safety Helmets 417 14.9.2 Mechanical Behaviour of Foams 418 14.9.3 Mechanical Testing of Safety Helmets 418 Appendices . 420 1 SI Units . 420 2 Conversion Factors, Constants and Physical Data 422 Figure References 424 Index 427 Index Index terms Links A Acceptor level, (band theory) 184 Acetabular cup (hip joint) 394 398 Acheson carbothermic process 334 341 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) 354 355 356 357 Activation energy (Q), see Arrhenius equation Additives: anti-oxidant 353 anti-ozonant 353 filler 352 plasticizer 352 stabilizer 352 Adhesives 414 Age-hardening 260 261 see also Hardening (precipitation-) Allotropy 20 60 337 Alloying elements in steel 278 283 290 298 Alnico alloys 191 Alumina: crystal structure 26 deformation 103 116 fibre reinforcement 369 371 laser ruby 196 nanocomposites 374 refractories 323 specific moduli 321 strength-probability-time diagram 349 zirconia-toughened, ZT(A) 331428 Index terms Links Aluminium alloys 316 412 414 Al-Ag 263 Al-Li alloys 317 designation (IADS) 316 mechanical alloying 318 rapid solidification processing 318 superplastic 317 Anelastic behaviour 176 Anisotropy: anisotropic thermal expansion 121 baked carbons 340 birefringence in crystals 129 composites 362 369 development during solidification 45 elastic 203 optical properties of crystals 129 stress-anisotropy of plastics 129 wood 407 Annealing 53 86 98 117 237 283 378 see also Grain growth; Preferred orientation; Recovery stage of annealing; Recrystallization; Twinning Annealing point (glass) 345 Anti-phase boundaries (APB) 178 214 232 313 Archery bows, arrows, strings 411 Arrhenius equation 80 89 175 177 178 218 237 246 282 345 Asbestos 28 Ashby diagrams 168 286 356 Asterism 238 267 Atom: atomic mass, relative 7 atomic number (Z) 4 133429 Index terms Links Atom: (Continued) atomic volume 168 Bohr model 2 energy states 9 interatomic distance 21 nuclear cross-section 88 transmutation 88 see also Electron Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) 46 150 154 Ausforming 283 Austenite 60 76 274 Austempered ductile iron (ADI) 304 Austempering 283 304 Avogadro constant (N) 21 Avrami equation 240 276 B Bain transformation theory 279 Bainite 274 282 Band structure (electronic) 181 conduction band 183 193 194 diamond 339 magnetism 189 optical behaviour 195 valency band 183 184 193 194 Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) theory of superconductivity 186 Barkhausen effect 190 Basquin's law 253 B-H curves for magnets 189 Bauschinger effect 235 Bauxite 324 Beam theory (bending) 413 Bearings 61 Bend test 201 412430 Index terms Links Berman-Simon line 338 'Beryllium-copper' 53 260 411 Bicycle frames, wheels 413 Biomaterials: bioactive 394 395 399 biocompatible 394 399 401 biodegradable 395 405 bioinert 394 biometric 404 mechanical properties 396 requirements, general 394 Bismaleimides (BMI) 367 Bloch wall 190 Boart 337 Boltzmann constant 51 80 85 Bonding, interatomic 7 8-N Rule 9 bonding and energy levels 9 covalent 9 ionic 8 metallic 8 van der Waals 9 Bone, human: fracture repair 397 osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteons 398 see also Joints Boric oxide 30 Boron nitride 23 Bragg diffraction law 134 135 141 Brasses: brazing alloys 414 compounds 24 78 phase diagram 60 season cracking 386431 Index terms Links Bridgman method (single crystals) 47 Bright-annealing of copper 378 Brillouin zone 75 77 181 Buckminsterfullerne 344 Bulk density 321 Bulk modulus 197 Burgers vector 91 102 see also Thompson tetrahedron C Capacitors 193 Carbon 337 353 Carbon electrodes, baked 340 Carbon, vitreous 343 Cast ingot structure 44 Cast irons 303 austempered ductile (ADI) 304 grey 304 malleable 304 mottled 303 spheroidal graphite (SG) 304 white 303 Cathodic (sacrificial) protection 386 415 Cement and concrete: reinforcement 372 thermal analysis 165 Cementite 60 274 Ceramics: classification 320 elastic deformation 203 firing 322 325 326 general properties 321 optical applications 195 production of powders 322432 Index terms Links Ceramics: (Continued) testing 200 thermal shock resistance 334 time-dependence of strength 348 transformation-toughening 330 Channelling patterns 145 Chemical stress 89 Chemisorption 378 Coble creep 175 249 Coffin-Manson law 253 Coherency (interfaces): devitrification 332 inoculation 45 laser-heated surfaces 392 nucleation in solids 82 precipitation-hardening 262 recrystallization 245 strain 191 Cold-drawing (plastics) 355 Collagen 397 400 402 Colour 195 Compliance, elastic 202 413 Composites, fibre-reinforced: principles: functions of matrix 361 modulus ratio versus stress ratio 362 Rule of Mixtures 362 see also Fibres types: carbon fibre (CFRP) 367 369 408 410 412 ceramic-matrix (CMC) 372 continuous-fibre 361 duplex steel 416433 Index terms Links Composites, fibre-reinforced: (Continued) glass-reinforced (GRP) 361 366 metal-matrix (MMC) 368 polymer-matrix (PMC) 366 short-fibre 363 Compounds: AB-type 24 AB2-type 24 AB2O4-type (spinel) 26 ABO3-type 26 deviation from stoichiometric composition 87 electrochemical 76 electron 78 intercalation 343 intermetallic 312 Laves phases 77 order-disorder transitions 79 size-factor 77 Conservative motion, of dislocations 94 Considère’s construction 199 Conversion factors and constants 422 Coordination: coordination number (CN) 20 ionic crystals 22 Pauling Rules 22 radius ratio (r/R) 22 Cordierite 72 Cords in glass 117 Coring 53 Corrosion, aqueous: differential aeration cell 382 electrochemical principles 382 failures 386 inhibitors 384434 Index terms Links Corrosion, aqueous: (Continued) passivity 384 385 prevention 384 Corrosion-fatigue 254 387 Crazing of plastics 355 Creep, metallic 199 245 fracture 249 grain boundary diffusion (Coble) 175 249 grain boundary sliding 247 258 Herring-Nabarro 176 249 tertiary 249 testing 199 transient and steady-state 245 Creep-resistant alloys 249 Critical field and temperature (superconductivity) 185 Cross-slip 93 101 210 214 230 232 268 Crystal structures: alumina 26 barium titanium oxide 26 boron nitride 23 cristobalite 25 CuAu 79 179 Cu3Au 79 CuAl2, θ' 270 CuZn 24 79 diamond 21 103 Fe3Al 79 graphite 21 341 Kaolinite 29 Ll2 structure 115 magnesia 24 martensite 278 metals at room temperature 20435 Index terms Links Crystal structures: (Continued) MgCu2 77 perovskite 26 187 Potassium graphite 343 polyethylene 38 silicon nitride 326 TiAl (Ll0) 314 zinc sulphide (blende) 23 YBa2Cu3O7-x 187 Crystallinity in polymers 36 38 chain-folding model 39 crystalline melting point (Tm) 38 355 defects 116 microscopy 129 spherulites 40 117 355 Crystallography: axial ratio (c/a) 15 19 204 278 crystal systems 12 directions and planes 14 equivalence 16 interplanar spacing 134 lattices 12 Miller-Bravais indices 15 Miller indices 14 reciprocal lattice 141 stereographic projection 16 symmetry 17 unit cell 12 Vector Addition Law 17 Weiss Zone Law 16 Curie temperature (point) 27 190 Curing of thermosetting resins 37 357 415 Czochralski 'crystal-pulling' (single crystals) 47436 Index terms Links D Dacron 400 413 Damping capacity 176 407 de Broglie relation 10 125 Debye characteristic temperature 170 Debye-Scherrer (power) method of X-ray analysis 136 Deep-drawing 234 Defects: ceramics 323 defect lattice 80 defect tetrahedra 108 glasses 117 line 90 planar 97 point 84 polymers 116 360 volume 104 see also Vacancies; Dislocations; Radiation damage; Stacking fault; Voids Deformation, elastic 201 Deformation mechanisms (Ashby) maps 176 251 356 Dendrites 43 Density: dislocations 90 intermetallic compounds 312 theoretical, calculation of 21 168 various materials 321 see also Property ratios Dental materials 395 bioglass 397 implants 397 porcelain 397 Detonation-gun (D-gun) method of coating 391 Devitrification 31 117 331 345 Dezincification 386437 Index terms Links Diamond: classification 339 natural 337 polycrystalline (PCD) 340 371 structure 8 21 synthetic 338 Dielectric materials 70 72 193 324 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 165 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) 165 Diffusion: Cu/Zn couple 60 diffusion coefficient (D) 173 Fick's 1st law 173 175 Fick's 2nd law 54 173 interstitial 174 mechanisms 173 oxidation, during 379 pipe 250 radiation-induced 124 reptation in polymers 41 self- 86 175 stress-induced 174 surface 175 'uphill' 273 vacancy 174 Diffusion bonding 370 Dilatation strain 202 215 Dilatometry 169 Dipoles in dielectric materials 193 194 Dislocation: behaviour of: 'atmosphere' (Cottrell) locking 212 214 chemical stress, response to 90438 Index terms Links Dislocation: (Continued) climb 93 94 110 237 246 288 cross-slip 93 101 210 214 230 232 268 decoration of 155 dissociation 99 105 108 116 Frank-Read source 210 223 265 interaction 96 Lomer-Cottrell barrier 103 107 motion, conservative and non-conservative 94 multiplication 210 pile-up 247 288 characteristics: Burgers vector 91 density 230 237 371 force acting per unit length 92 image formation in TEM 147 155 jog 93 97 108 kink 216 line tension 210 loops, see Dislocation loops strain energy, elastic 95 velocity 207 width 207 forms: dipole 94 228 edge 91 extended, see Stacking faults extrinsic 98 'forest' 93 238 grain boundary (gbds) 97 intrinsic 98 ionic crystals, fcc 97 misfit, at interface 83439 Index terms Links Dislocation: (Continued) partial (Shockley) 99 105 screw 91 97 sessile (Frank) 102 stair-rod 102 107 superdislocations 114 214 231 unit 106 loops: cross-slip multiplication source 210 double 107 111 119 growth and stability 117 269 irradiation effects 119 Orowan 231 266 371 prismatic 94 106 119 sessile (Frank) 102 104 107 121 single 91 93 Domain structures 178 190 Dough-moulding compounds (DMC) 366 Drug delivery, polymeric 405 'Ductile' ceramics 286 Dulong and Petit law 170 179 Duplex (double) ageing 271 Duplex steel 416 Duralumin alloys 260 E Elastomers 35 Electrical conductivity 181 ceramics 321 effect of ordering 180 Electrical contacts 62 Electrochemical effect, in alloying 73 74 Electrochemical Series 383 Electrode (half-cell) potential 382440 Index terms Links Electrographites 340 Electromagnetic spectrum 125 194 Electron: -atom ratio (e/a) 75 78 186 Auger 142 143 150 154 band structure theory 181 back-scattered (BS) 144 150 exchange energy (magnetism) 190 'gas' 8 orbitals, radii of 190 polarization in dielectrics 193 quantum numbers 2 secondary 150 states, density of 9 75 182 states, filling of 3 volt 10 see also Atom: Electron microscopy Electronegativity 74 77 Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) 150 152 Electron microscopy 142 back-scattered (BS) electrons 144 bend (extinction) contours 156 bright-and dark-field imaging 147 161 convergent beam diffraction pattern (CBDP) 149 diffraction contrast 147 dynamical theory 158 electron channelling 145 first-order Laue zones (FOLZ) 150 g-vector 156 higher-order Laue zones (HOLZ) 149 higher-voltage electron microscopy (HVEM) 149 imaging of dislocations 147 157 159 166 Kikuchi lines 148 kinematical theory 156441 Index terms Links Electron microscopy (Continued) scanning electron microscope (SEM) 144 scattering of plasmons and electrons 142 selected area diffraction (SAD) 147 transmission electron microscope (TEM) 143 weak-beam 160 Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) 150 Electro-optic ceramics 196 Emery 324 Epitaxy, see Coherency Epoxy resins (adhesives) 36 412 415 Equilibrium diagrams, see Phage diagrams Etching techniques for microscopy 126 154 Eutectic reaction: binary systems 56 in-situ composites 374 ternary systems 66 Eutectoid reaction 58 274 Ewald 'reflection' sphere 141 148 156 Extended X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy (EXAFS) 163 Extrusion of plastics 356 F Fatigue 200 252 Basquin's Law 253 Coffin-Manson Law 253 cracking and failure 256 295 413 416 corrosion- 254 387 endurance limit 200 fatigue limit 252 254 fatigue ratio 253 hardening 256 high-temperature 258 Miner's hypothesis 254442 Index terms Links Fatigue (Continued) S-N diagram 200 252 surface striations 257 testing 200 252 variables 252 Feldspars 30 Fencing foils 415 Fermi surface (level) 10 75 183 186 189 Ferri-and ferroelectric materials 194 Ferrite 60 76 274 301 Fibres for composites: aramid 367 aspect ratio 363 boron 369 carbon 367 coupling agents 364 critical length 363 glass 285 361 366 lay-up sequence 365 orientation 364 stress transfer length 363 whiskers 284 369 Firebricks 63 Floating-zone technique (single crystals) 47 Flow stress 203 206 219 233 235 268 Fluxes: alumina 325 dielectrics 72 glasses 30 31 silicon nitride 326 solders 56 Foams (polymeric) 169 287 418443 Index terms Links Forsterite ceramics 71 Fracture: brittleness in ceramics 286 cleavage 199 288 creep 249 293 cup-and-cone 199 debonding in composites 364 371 372 ductile-brittle transition 198 289 ductile fracture 104 292 fatigue 256 295 348 fracture mechanism map 294 hydrogen, effect of 291 intercrystalline 199 intergranular 287 slow (delayed) crack growth in ceramics 348 toughness 285 toughness parameter (Kc) 199 286 transformation-inhibited 331 twins, effect of 224 Frank Read Source, dislocations 210 223 265 Fretting corrosion 387 Fullerenes and fullerite 344 'Fused quartz' 345 Fusible alloys 68 408 G Galvanic Series 383 see also Electrochemical Series Gauss error function 174 GEC process for synthesizing diamonds 338 Gibbsite 325 Glass: manufacture: commercial glass, of 31444 Index terms Links Glass: (Continued) formation from melt 31 working range of temperature 345 see also Fluxes properties: colour 195 optical 129 specific moduli 321 time-dependency of strength 348 viscosity 333 345 structure: devitrification 31 117 331 345 network-formers 31 network-modifiers 31 117 network structure 11 31 types: AR-, E-, H-modulus, S- 366 aluminosilicate 346 borosilicate (Pyrex) 346 chemically-strengthened 346 'fused quartz' 345 laminated 347 'lead crystal' 346 photochromic 195 soda-lime 346 thermally-tempered 346 Vycor 48 Glass-ceramics 322 331 Glass transition point (Tg) 35 351 355 367 Glaze 324 Globars (SiC) 336 Golf club shaft, and heads 410 Goss texture 146445 Index terms Links Grain boundary: cavitation during fatigue 258 coincident site lattice (CSL) model 98 diffusion creep (Coble) 176 249 dislocation pile-up at 155 fracture effect on 290 grain boundary sliding 247 258 288 high-angle 43 97 239 intergranular nucleation 240 low-angle (tilt) 43 97 tripe junction 99 twist 97 work-hardening at 231 Grain growth 242 Grain size: dual-phase steels 301 heat-treatment (steel), effect on 276 toughness, effect on 289 Hall-Fetch equation 216 219 224 289 measurement 131 yield strees, effect on 219 Grain structures: cell formation 230 238 chill crystals 44 columnar crystals 45 46 equiaxed grains 43 45 planes of weakness 45 Graphite: conventional structure 22 intercalation compounds 344 pyrolytic (PG) 341 368 402 turbostratic 367 'Green' powder compact 322 325 Greninger-Troiano theory 279446 Index terms Links Griffith micro-crack criterion 284 289 Griffith-Preston (GP) zones 261 267 g-vector in electron microscopy 157 H Hall-Petch equation 216 219 224 289 HAPEX, composite 399 402 Hardening: chemical 266 coherency strain- 265 dispersion- 231 250 266 301 302 fatigue- 255 heat-treatment of steels 274 irradiation 290 point defect 224 precipitation- 53 259 317 secondary 283 texture- 233 work (strain)- 226 Hardness (indentation): Brinell 199 hot 329 Knoop 130 Meyer line 131 microhardness 130 Vickers 130 199 Heat-affected zone (HAZ) 405 414 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 2 Helmets Safety 417 Herring-Nabarro Creep 176 249 Heusler alloy 188 192 Hooke's Law 197 202 Hume-Rothery Rules 73447 Index terms Links Hund's Rule 4 7 Hydrogen embrittlement 291 Hydroxyapatite (HA) 396 397 399 402 I Impact testing 199 418 Internal friction 176 Investment casting ('Lost wax' process) 410 Ionic crystals: coordination in 22 dislocations in 97 In-situ composites 373 Inclusion counting methods 131 Inoculation of melts 45 Insulators, electrical 193 Intermediate phases 59 see also Compounds Intermediate compounds 312 370 Interstitial atoms 86 122 'Invisibility' criterion (g) in electron microscopy 157 Ion implantation 391 Iron 172 Iron-nickel alloys (Permalloys} 191 Iron-silicon alloys (magnets) 191 243 Isoforming 283 284 Isostatic pressing: alumina 325 silicon nitride 325 Isothermal annealing 283448 Index terms Links J Johnson-Mehl equation 240 Joining: adhesives 414 brazing 414 HAZ problems 414 Tungsten-inert gas (TIG) welding 414 Joints, human: failure 399 finger 399 hip 394 398 knee 399 shoulder 399 wrist (carpal) 400 K Kaolinite 29 63 Kê torsion pendulum 177 Kear-Wilsdorf (K-W) lock 232 Kevlar 367 408 410 Kikuchi lines 148 157 Kirkendall effect 123 175 inverse 123 Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation relation 278 L Larsen-Miller parameter 308 Lasers 195 412 Lattice friction 207 225 Lattice rotation 205 Laue method of X-ray analysis 135 Laves phases 26 77 Le Chatelier principle 49 'Lead crystal' glass 346449 Index terms Links Lever Rule 52 Liquid pressure forming (LPF) 370 Liquidus 52 Littleton softening point (glass) 345 Lomer-Cottrell barrier 103 107 Lüders band 211 M Ms temperature 276 281 283 Magnesia (MgO) 8 115 Magnet: hard (permanent) 188 191 soft (temporary) 188 191 Magnetic alloys 191 Magnetic hysteresis (B-H loop) 189 191 Magnetic remanence 189 Magnetic susceptibility 188 192 Magnetism: anti-ferro- 162 192 dia- 189 ferri- 193 ferro- 162 172 188 189 para- 162 188 Magnetostriction 191 Magnox alloys 258 Manganese sulphide in steel 60 Martempering 283 Martensite 61 76 274 278 Material property (Ashby) chart 168 286 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law 80 Mechanical alloying 301 318 369 Meissner effect 186 Melt flow index (MFI) test 358450 Index terms Links Melting point: congruent 52 58 66 creep-resistant alloys 249 electrochemical effect in alloying 74 incongruent 58 intermetallic compounds 312 intermediate phase, of 76 pure metal 42 Michel-Lévy colour chart 129 Microscopy, light: etching 126 hot-stage 129 illumination, bright- and dark-field 126 magnification 127 microhardness testing 130 numerical aperture (NA) 127 objective lens 126 Burch reflecting 130 oil-immersion 127 ocular lens 126 127 parfocalization 127 phase-contrast 127 polarized light 129 quantitative 131 grain size 131 inclusions 131 stereological notation 131 resolution 126 tube length 127 Miller-Bravais indices 15 Miller indices 14 Mineralizers 25 Miscibility, solid see Solid solution Modifiers, see Glass451 Index terms Links Modulus of rupture (MoR) 201 321 411 Moduli, elastic 197 203 321 396 Molecular mass distribution (MMD): in polymers 33 360 polydispersivity index 33 Molecular sieves 30 Molybdenum disulphide 22 Moment of Inertia (I) 410 413 Monel 52 Monotectic reaction 59 61 64 Moulding of plastics: blow- 357 359 injection- 356 360 reaction injection-(RIM) 357 tennis rackets 408 Mullite 63 335 Multiple cross-slip (Koehler) 210 Mylar 413 N n-type semiconductor 87 184 380 381 Nanocomposites 374 Néel temperature 192 'Necking' during tensile test 198 Nernst equation 383 Neumann bands 223 Neutron: diffraction 161 179 mass absorption coefficients 162 scattering amplitudes 162 'thermal' 161 Newtonian flow 345 358 Nichrome alloy 382452 Index terms Links Nickel aluminides 312 Nimonic alloys 249 295 Nishiyama orientation relation 279 Nitridation 325 Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of ceramics 323 337 Notch-sensitivity, see Fracture; Impact testing Nuclear fission 88 122 161 Nucleation and growth processes: defect tetrahedra 108 glass-ceramics 332 heterogeneous nucleation 43 82 homogeneous nucleation 42 81 332 nucleating agents (inoculants) 45 333 nucleation in solids 82 oxidation 378 pearlite formation 276 precipitation-hardening 53 259 270 recrystallization 239 spherulite formation in polymers 40 twinned crystals 222 void formation 104 292 371 Nylon 355 359 366 409 O Ophthalmic materials (lenses) 404 Optic axes of crystals 129 Optical fibres 195 Optical properties 195 339 Ordering of atoms: effect on physical properties 179 entropy of disorder 49 irradiation effects 123 magnets, in 191 order-disorder transformation 60 79453 Index terms Links Ordering of atoms: (Continued) ordered solid solutions (superlattice) 79 113 178 192 231 short-range, long-range 11 177 work-hardening, effect of 231 Orowan loops 231 Ostwald ripening 272 Overvoltage 383 Oxidation of metals: kinetics 378 logarithmic rate law 379 parabolic rate law 379 thermodynamics 376 P Pacemaker, heart 403 p-type semiconductors 87 184 380 381 p-n-p semiconductor 184 Paris-Erdogan (fatigue) equation 295 Particles, precipitate: coarsening of 272 stability of 74 Pauli Exclusion Principle 2 9 190 Pauling Rules, of coordination 22 Pearlite 60 276 Peierls-Nabarro stress 207 213 280 312 Periodic Table 4 74 151 Peritectic reaction: in binary systems 57 60 in ternary systems 69 Peritectoid reaction 58 Permalloys 191 Permittivity 193 Persistent slip band (PSB) 255454 Index terms Links Phase 48 Phase diagrams: principles: arrest points 60 binary 52 double-reciprocal 327 Gibbs triangle 65 Lever Rule 52 56 limitations 59 liquidus 52 miscibility gap 123 Phase Rule 64 solidus 52 solvus 52 ternary 65 tie-line 52 64 66 70 tie-triangle 65 unary 48 systems; Al-Cu 78 259 Al2O3–SiO2 63 Au-Ni 73 Au-Pt 73 Cr-S-O 382 Cu-Ag 73 Cu-Be 53 Cu-Pb 61 Cu-Sn 78 Cu-Zn 60 78 Fe-C 60 274 Fe-Cr 298 Fe-Ni 298 MgO–Al2O3–SiO2 70 Mg-Si 59 Ni-Cu 52 73455 Index terms Links Phase diagrams: (Continued) Ni-Pt 73 Ni-S-O 64 Pb-Sn 57 Si-Al-O-N 327 Ti-Al 309 Ti-Cu 309 Ti-V 309 ZrO2–Y2O3 330 Phase equilibrium: Class I reactions 68 Class II reactions 69 Class III reactions 69 four-phase 68 two-phase 52 three-phase 56 61 Phase Rule 48 64 Phase transformations: austenite-bainite 282 austenite-martensite 278 ceramics 63 conversions 24 devitrification 31 diffusionless 275 inversions 24 order-disorder transformation 60 pure metal 48 solidification of pure metal 42 specific heat, changes in 171 thermodynamical aspects 50 volumetric changes 169 zirconia 330 Phenol-formaldehyde resin (P-F; Bakelite) 36 37 357 Piezoelectric effect 194456 Index terms Links Pilling-Bedworth (P-B) ratio 379 Pistons, diesel 371 Plasma-spray method of coating 391 Plasmon interactions 142 153 Platinum phthalocyanine 117 Plasticity, macroscopic 235 Poisson ratio 197 202 Polarization 193 194 Polarized light microscopy 129 spherulites in polymers 40 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 366 408 Polybutadiene 36 Polybutylene (PB) 353 Polycarbonates 354 Polychloroprene 36 354 Polyester resin 37 366 Polyether ketone (PEEK) 366 409 Polyethylene (PE) 33 39 41 linear low-density (LLDPE) 353 low-density (LDPE) and high-density (HDPE) 34 38 353 ultra-high molecular weight (UHMPE) 353 Polygonization 238 Polyimides (PI) 367 Polyisoprene (natural rubber) 36 354 Polymerization: condensation polymerization 37 copolymerization 35 degree of (n) 32 vulcanization 35 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) 38 352 357 Polypropylene (PP) 34 35 39 130 353 354 355 359 366457 Index terms Links Polystyrene (PS) 34 38 40 352 354 355 356 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 352 366 Polytypoids (polytypes) 328 334 Polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) 34 Polyvinyl butyrate (PVB) 347 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): plasticized 34 352 353 357 unplasticized (UPVC) 353 Porosity, gas: scavenging treatment of melts 45 Sievert's relation 45 Pourbaix diagram 384 Powder (Debye-Scherrer) method of X-ray analysis 136 142 Powders, ceramic 322 324 334 Preferred orientation: annealing texture 233 cube texture 191 245 deformation textures 232 Goss texture 146 243 recrystallization texture 245 texture transition 233 Preferred (Renard) numbers 127 Prepregs (pre-impregnated shapes) 366 Proof-testing 201 348 Property ratios, specific: E /ρ 321 410 411 412 413 416 MoR/ρ 411 Klc /σy 286 287 σ y /ρ 169 369 407 413 Prosthetic materials: ear implants 402 heart valves and arteries 402458 Index terms Links Prosthetic materials: (Continued) maxillofacial surgery 401 plastic surgery 400 tissue repair 403 Pykecrete 361 Pyroelectric materials 194 Q Quantum theory 2 170 R Radiant tubes (gas-fired furnaces) 336 Radiation damage: damage cascades 121 displacement spike 88 electron miroscopy 149 growth and swelling 121 induced precipitation 123 induced segregation 123 microscopy 149 neutron 'annealing' of metals 90 ordered alloys 123 radiation hardening 225 thermal spike 88 void formation 104 Radiography 133 Reaction-sintering (bonding) 325 335 Read-Shockley formula 97 Reciprocal lattice 141 148 156 Recovery stage of annealing 86 237 246 Recrystallization 146 239 243 293 319 342 REFEL silicon carbide 334459 Index terms Links Refractories: properties: general 25 29 62 modulus of rupture 201 pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) 62 refractoriness 63 322 spalling 322 types: alumina 63 323 aluminosilicate 62 carbon 337 insulating 322 mullite 63 silica 63 silicon carbide 334 zirconia 330 Relative valency effect, in alloying 73 74 Relaxation modulus (polymers) 351 Relaxation time (anelastic) 176 359 Reptation in polymers 41 Resins, thermosetting 36 357 415 Resolution 126 Reversion (retrogression) 260 Rubber: decomposition 164 hard (Ebonite) 35 natural 354 repeat units 36 silicone 36 371 styrene-butadiene- 36 354 S SI units 420 S-N diagram (fatigue) 200460 Index terms Links Schmid's Law 233 Season-cracking of brass 386 Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) 163 'Seeds' in glass 117 Segregation: cellular microsegregation 54 inverse 46 normal 46 X-ray analysis of 141 Selected area diffraction (SAD) 148 Semiconductors 87 103 138 183 195 336 340 392 Sensitization of austenitic steels 386 Shape-memory effect (SME) 315 'Sharkskin' (plastics) 360 Shear strength of crystals, theoretical 90 Shear stress for slip, resolved 203 Sheet moulding compounds (SMC) 357 366 Shrinkage: firing 325 plastics 361 silicon nitride 326 solidification 43 SI units 420 Sialons 326 Sievert relation, gas 45 Silica 24 30 Silicates 27 Silicon carbide 24 334 Silicon-lithium detector 152 Silicon nitride 326 hot-isostatically-pressed (HIPSN) 326 hot-pressed (HPSN) 326461 Index terms Links Silicon nitride (Continued) reaction-bonded (RBSN) 325 Single crystals: polyethylene 39 production for research 47 slip and lattice rotation 204 stress-strain curves 226 turbine blades 46 250 307 X-ray diffraction analysis 135 Sink-marks (plastics) 361 Sintered aluminium powder (SAP) 242 250 Sintering 119 243 322 325 330 Size factor, in alloying 73 77 Skiing boots bindings, skis, poles 417 Slip: comparison with twinning 203 critical resolved shear stress 205 dislocation movement 92 110 lines and bands 205 211 multiple 205 overshooting of primary system 206 persistent slip band (PSB) 255 resolved shear stress 203 systems in metals 204 see also Cross-slip Snowboarding equipment 416 Sol-gel process 323 Solders 56 Solid solution: ceramic 326 complete miscibility in ternary system 66 coring in 53 extended (continuous) 52462 Index terms Links Solid solution: (Continued) interstitial 76 ordered 79 Primary (terminal) 52 74 solvus 53 substitutional 73 79 see also Hume-Rothery Rules Solidification: cellular front 54 dendritic 43 directional (DS) 46 374 kinectics, of 81 plane-front 43 pure metal, of 42 volume changes 170 Solidus 52 Solution heat-treatment 259 Spark plugs 324 Specific heat (capacity) 170 179 Specific modulus 321 Spherulites, see Crystallinity in polymers Spinels: degree of inversion 27 ferrospinels (ferrites) 27 inverse 27 oxide scale 381 structure 26 Spinodal decomposition 273 Sputtering yield (Y) 389 Squeeze-casting 370 Stacking fault: Ceramics, in 103 115 corrosion, effect on 386 cross-slip 101463 Index terms Links Stacking fault: (Continued) energy 48 98 100 extrinsic 102 imaging in electron microscope 158 159 intrinsic 102 105 ordered structures 113 structure 99 112 tetrahedra 93 104 107 width 101 work-hardening 227 Stacking sequences: cubic structures 19 112 fee crystals 99 102 hexagonal structures 19 110 intercalation compounds 343 precipitation-hardening 269 pyrolytic graphite 341 semiconductors 103 Steatite: low-loss-factor 70 porcelains 70 Steels, types of: alloy 278 298 302 austenitic (stainless) 291 298 303 designation (BS) of steels 302 dual-phase (DP) 300 duplex 416 high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) 286 299 maraging 299 416 mechanically-alloyed (MA) 301 non-strain-ageing 212 plain carbon 277 297 Stereographic projection 16 preferred orientation 232464 Index terms Links Stereographic projection (Continued) slip 205 Thompson tetrahedron 105 Stiffness constants, elastic 202 Stirling's approximation 85 'Stones' in glass 117 Strain-age hardening 211 215 217 Strain-anneal technique, for single crystals 47 Strain-hardening, see Work-hardening Strain ratio (R) 234 Strength-probability-time (SPT) diagrams 348 Strengthening, see Hardening Stress: chemical 89 cycles (fatigue) 252 flow 203 206 219 233 235 268 intensity factor (K) 286 nominal 197 Peierls-Nabarro 207 213 288 312 relaxation in polymers 351 359 resolved shear 203 220 222 tensor 202 true 198 yield, variation with temperature and strain rate 208 Stress-corrosion: Ceramics, of 348 cracking (SCC) 386 Stress-recrystallization 342 Stress-strain curve 197 226 362 Stretcher strain markings 212 Stroh (fracture) mechanism 288 Styrene-butadiene-rubber (SBR) 36 354465 Index terms Links Superalloys: alloying elements 305 eutectic (NITAC, COTAC) 374 hot corrosion of 64 Superconductors 26 181 185 Superlattice, see Ordering of atoms Superplasticity 220 317 Surface (interfacial) energy: ductile failure 293 grain growth 242 hydrogen embrittlement 291 nucleation, influence on 81 particle-coarsening 272 sintering 243 triple junctions 99 Surgical materials see Prosthetic materials Swell, degree of 359 Symmetry in crystals: cubic 17 elements 17 Laue patterns 135 point and space groups 18 tetrahedral 18 Synchro-shear (Kronberg) 116 Synchrotron radiation studies (SRS) 162 T Tacticity, in polymers; syndio-, iso- and atacticity 35 39 Talc (French chalk) 9 30 TD (thoria-dispersed)-nickel 250 295 307 Temper embrittlement 291 Tempering of martensite 282 Tennis racket frames and strings 407466 Index terms Links Tensile test 198 see also Yielding, discontinuous Thermal analysis 164 Thermal expansion 168 372 407 Thermistor (PTC) 185 Thermodynamic criteria for equilibrium: entropy 49 74 374 free energy 49 aqueous corrosion 382 oxidation of metals 376 recrystallization 239 transformation, of 171 variation with temperature/composition 50 75 heat content 49 Thermo-mechanical (THT) treatments 283 Thermocouple sheaths 323 Thermoforming of plastics 356 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) 164 379 Thermoplastics 32 adhesive 415 copolymer 35 flow defects 360 molecular mass distribution 33 processing 356 structural repeat units, typical 35 tacticity 35 Thermosets 36 357 375 415 Thompson tetrahedron: bcc crystals 112 cph crystals 108 defect (stacking fault) tetrahedra 111 fee crystals 106 ionic crystals 114 stair-rod dislocations 107467 Index terms Links Throwing power 388 Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams 274 281 284 Titanium alloys 308 410 414 α-stabilizers, in 308 β-stabilizers, in 308 commercial 310 processing 312 Titanium aluminides 314 Tool tips 329 Transducers 194 Transformation-toughening (zirconia) 330 Transformer laminations 243 Transistor 184 Transmutation of elements 88 Tresca yield criterion 235 Turbine blades: ceramic 322 directional solidification of 46 superalloys 305 Twins: annealing 244 boundary 98 boundary energy 101 comparison with slip 203 crystallography 221 dislocation (pole) mechanism 223 fracture 224 impurities, effect of 223 prestrain, effect of 223 stacking sequence 102 244 Tyres, automobile 353468 Index terms Links U Undercooling 42 constitutional 54 effect on rate of precipitation 81 Uranium 122 Urea-formaldehyde (U-F) resin 36 415 V Vacancies: activation energy of formation 89 activation energy of migration 89 chemical stress 89 clustering 104 120 269 creep mechanisms 247 definition 84 di-vacancies 89 diffusion of 174 emission 122 equilibrium concentration 85 fatigue 254 Frenkel defect (vacancy-interstitial pair) 86 Precipitation, role during 268 Schottky defect (vacancy pair) 86 self-diffusion 86 174 sinks 85 89 117 122 sources 85 tri-vacancies 89 Vacuum melting and degassing 45 Vapour deposition: chemical (CVD) 323 342 368 388 physical (PVD) 388 plasma-assisted chemical (PACVD) 388 plasma-assisted physical (PAPVD) 390 Varistor 185469 Index terms Links Vegard's Law 168 Viscoelasticity 35 351 359 Viscosity: glasses 345 thermoplastic melts 358 Voids: debonding in composites 371 ductile fracture 104 293 fatigue failure 256 formation of 90 104 gas-filled 104 irradiation swelling 122 sintering 119 von Mises yield criterion 220 287 Vulcanization 35 Vycor glass 48 333 W Wagner-Hauffe Rule 380 Waste management (plastics) 354 Wave number 181 Weld decay 386 Whiskers 284 369 Wiedemann-Franz law 181 Widmanstatten structure 53 83 262 'Windows', ceramic 196 Wood: anisotropy 407 cell structure 406 properties 407 types 407 Work (strain)-hardening 226 brittle behaviour 289 creep, during 246470 Index terms Links Work (strain)-hardening (Continued) dislocation-dislocation interaction 212 jog theory 93 Lomer-Cottrell barrier 103 107 relation to slip 206 Taylor model 226 X X-ray diffraction: methods of analysis: diffractometry (XRD) 137 Laue 135 261 topography 138 powder (Debye-Scherrer) 136 179 principles: 'absent' reflections 139 141 asterism 238 267 atomic scattering factor 139 Bragg law 134 determination of lattice parameters 140 determination of solvus 140 intensity of diffraction 138 line-broadening 140 reciprocal lattice 141 reflection (line) number (N) 134 small angle scattering (SAS) 141 261 262 structure-factor equation 139 X-rays: absorption coefficients 133 162 characteristic 133 150 continuous ('white') spectrum 133 161 diffraction by crystals 134 extended X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy (EXAFS) 163 filtering 134 intensity measurement 138471 Index terms Links X-rays: (Continued) scattering amplitudes 162 Si-Li detector 151 wavelength- and energy-dispersive spectrometers 150 Y YBCO (1-2-3 compound) superconductor 187 Yielding, discontinuous: effect of overstraining 211 effects of temperature and grain size 217 Lüders band formation 211 ordered alloys 214 strain age-hardening 211 yield point (upper, lower) 211 Young's modulus 197 203 321 see also Property ratios Yttria 326 330 Yttrium-aluminium-garnet (YAG) 328 Z Z(AF) micro-analysis technique 152 Zener drag equation 242 Zeolites 30 Zirconia 330 fully-stabilized cubic (CSZ) 330 partially-stabilized (PSZ) 330 331 refractories 330 tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (TZP) 330 331 toughened alumina (ZT(A)) 331 Zone-refining 46 55 185
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