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| موضوع: كتاب Handbook of Corrosion Engineering - Third Edition الخميس 4 أبريل 2024 - 2:56 | |
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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Handbook of Corrosion Engineering - Third Edition Pierre R. Roberge
و المحتوى كما يلي :
CONTENTS Preface vii Acknowledgments ix About the Author x Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 The Concept of Corrosion in History / 1 1.2 Visualizing Corrosion Cells / 3 1.3 A Simple Corrosion Model / 5 1.4 Corrosion in Our Daily Life / 12 1.5 Strategic Impact and Cost of Corrosion Damage / 17 1.6 What Corrosion Engineers Do? / 20 References / 22 Chapter 2. Atmospheric Corrosion 25 2.1 Introduction / 25 2.2 Outdoor Atmospheres / 27 2.3 Indoor Atmospheres / 29 2.4 Atmospheric Corrosivity Factors and Their Measurement / 31 2.5 Atmospheric Corrosion Tests / 41 2.6 Prevention and Control / 50 References / 61 Chapter 3. Corrosion in Water and Seawater 65 3.1 Introduction / 66 3.2 Corrosion and Water Quality/Availability / 66 3.3 Types of Water / 73 3.4 Cooling Water Systems / 83 3.5 Steam Generating Systems / 88 3.6 Water Treatment / 95 3.7 Scaling Indices / 101 3.8 Lead Corrosion: Chloride-to-Sulfate Mass Ratio / 106 3.9 Corrosion in Seawater / 107 References / 118 Chapter 4. Corrosion in Soils 121 4.1 Introduction / 122 4.2 Soil Classification / 122 4.3 Soil Parameters Affecting Corrosivity / 123 4.4 Soil Corrosivity Classifications / 127iv CONTENTS 4.5 Soil Corrosion Cells / 129 4.6 Auxiliary Effects of Corrosion Cells / 140 4.7 Examples of Buried Systems / 142 4.8 Corrosion of Materials Other Than Steel / 145 References / 148 Chapter 5. Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete 149 5.1 Introduction / 149 5.2 Degradation of Reinforced Concrete / 150 5.3 Remedial Measures / 158 5.4 Condition Assessment of Reinforced Concrete Structures / 169 5.5 Other Forms of Concrete Degradation / 173 References / 174 Chapter 6. Microorganisms and Biofouling 175 6.1 Introduction / 176 6.2 Examples of Microbial Corrosion / 176 6.3 Nature of Biofilms / 177 6.4 Biofilm Formation and Growth / 179 6.5 Marine Biofouling / 182 6.6 Problems Associated with Biofilms / 182 6.7 Biocorrosion Mechanisms / 184 6.8 Microorganisms Classification / 185 6.9 Monitoring Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion / 189 6.10 Biofilm Control / 196 References / 202 Chapter 7. Modeling and Life Prediction 205 7.1 Models, Computers, and Corrosion / 206 7.2 Early Models (Historical Notes) / 206 7.3 Bottom-Up Corrosion Models / 208 7.4 Top-Down Corrosion Models / 226 7.5 Corrosion Information and Communication Technologies / 241 References / 243 Chapter 8. Corrosion Failures 247 8.1 Introduction / 247 8.2 Mechanisms and Forms of Corrosion Failures / 248 8.3 Investigating Corrosion Failures / 334 References / 339 Chapter 9. Corrosion Management, Maintenance, and Inspection 343 9.1 The Cost of Poor Maintenance / 344 9.2 Corrosion Management Strategies / 345CONTENTS v 9.3 The Impact Corrosion Management System / 348 9.4 Maintenance Strategies / 354 9.5 Inspection Strategies / 357 9.6 Industrial Examples / 381 References / 411 Chapter 10. Corrosion Monitoring 413 10.1 What Is Corrosion Monitoring? / 413 10.2 Corrosion Monitoring Techniques / 415 10.3 Corrosion Monitoring Locations / 459 10.4 Corrosion Monitoring Systems / 461 10.5 Integration in Process Control / 462 10.6 Modeling the Corrosion Monitoring Response / 464 10.7 Probe Design and Selection / 465 10.8 Data Communication and Analysis Requirements / 474 References / 474 Chapter 11. Engineering Materials: Selection and Design Considerations 477 11.1 Materials Selection / 479 11.2 Corrosion Aware Materials Selection / 479 11.3 Selection Compromises / 487 11.4 Materials Selection Road Map / 491 11.5 Basics of Metallurgy / 496 11.6 Engineering Materials / 510 11.7 Design Considerations / 639 References / 647 Chapter 12. Protective Coatings 651 12.1 Types of Coatings / 652 12.2 Why Coatings Fail / 653 12.3 Soluble Salts and Coating Failures / 655 12.4 Economic Aspects of Coatings Selection and Maintenance / 659 12.5 Organic Coatings / 662 12.6 Inorganic (Nonmetallic) Coatings / 679 12.7 Metallic Coatings / 687 12.8 Coating Inspection and Testing / 703 12.9 Surface Preparation / 714 References / 720 Chapter 13. Corrosion Inhibitors 723 13.1 Basic Concepts / 724 13.2 Types of Inhibitors / 733 13.3 Environmental Factors / 743 13.4 Green Inhibitors / 756 13.5 Application Techniques / 758 13.6 Safety Precautions / 762 References / 763vi CONTENTS Chapter 14. Cathodic Protection (Web Chapter) Appendix A. Periodic Table (Web Only) Appendix B. SI Units Conversion Table (Web Only) Appendix C. Reference Electrodes (Web Only) Appendix D. Chemical Compositions of Engineering Alloys (Web Only) Appendix E. Historical Perspective (Web Only) Index 765 INDEX Note: Page numbers followed by f denote figures; page numbers followed by t denote tables.766 INDEX Alkalinity (Cont.): titanium, 630 tungsten, 587 weak-acid cation resins, 101 zirconium, 638 Alloy 20Cb-3, 561t Alloy 25, 561t Alloy 188, 561t Alloy 230, 561t Alloy 254, 598 Alloy 255, 562t–563t Alloy 600, 94 Alloying: additions, 509 aluminum, 512, 519 cast iron, 528 duplex stainless steel, 605 laser surface, 695t, 697t, 699t metallurgy, 501–504, 502f–504f nickel, 551, 557–558 platinum, 574 stainless steel, 598–601, 600t titanium, 618 Alpha/beta titanium alloys, 619 Alpha titanium alloys, 619 Aluminum (alloys), 510–523, 511t alloying, 519 alloying additions, 509 ANN, 239 anodic reactions, 8 anodizing protective coatings, 682–683, 682t, 683f applications, 516–517 atmospheric corrosion, 27t, 58 tests, 42f brasses, seawater, 116t bronzes, 537t chloride-containing agar gels, 3 copper plating, 9 coupon exposure of, 38 CP, 145–146 cracking, 518 crevice corrosion, 258, 260–261, 261f exfoliation corrosion, 282–284, 282f–284f, 283t, 486, 487f fresh water, 76 galvanic corrosion, 264, 272 heat treatment, 519–520 hydrogen, 520 IGC, 278–279 marine biofouling, 182 mechanical properties, 512 pitting corrosion, 239 precipitation hardening, 507 production, 511–512 protective coatings, 520, 688t reactivity, 482 reinforced concrete, 156 SCC, 321, 520–523, 521t–522t, 523f soils, 145–146 special products, 514 Aluminum (alloys) (Cont.): temper designation system, 514–515 titanium, 618 welding, 517–518 zirconium, 635 AMCs. See Airborne molecular contaminants American Petroleum Institute (API), 369, 381 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM): ASTM A262, 281, 598 ASTM A775, 165 ASTM B117, 45, 49 ASTM C114, 172 ASTM C227, 173 ASTM C289, 173 ASTM C856, 172 ASTM D 664, 459 ASTM D 974, 459 ASTM D 3230, 459 ASTM D714, 703 ASTM D3359, 703 ASTM D4541, 703 ASTM E1459, 338 ASTM G-1, 421 ASTM G-4, 417 ASTM G-31, 419 ASTM G 44, 520 ASTM G-48, 420 ASTM G-71, 420 ASTM G-78, 420, 420f ASTM G28, 282 ASTM G62, 714 ASTM G78, 262 ASTM G85, 49–50 ASTM G161-00, 336 CF, 329 grain number, 498, 500f protective coatings, 708, 710, 711t–712t salt spray cabinet testing, 48, 49–50 sulfur dioxide, 38 titanium, 620, 620t UNS, 532 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME): ASME B31G, 388, 388nd RBI, 382 American Water Works Association (AWWA), 16, 66–67, 67t, 70 CMPs, 351 LSI, 105 soils, 127 Ammonia: brasses, 538 copper, 147 dezincification, 276 FCCU, 380 fresh water, 78t indoor atmospheric corrosion, 30 molybdenum, 576, 578 steam generating systems, 89 strong-base anion resins, 101 titanium, 632INDEX 767 Amphoteric, 146, 146na zinc, 633 AND gate, FTA, 376, 378f Anisotropic: exfoliation corrosion, 282 zirconium, 634 ANN. See Artificial neural network Annealing, 504–507, 505f, 506f aluminum, 511–512 high-performance alloys, 555–556 stainless steel, 281 tantalum, 585 zirconium, 635 Annular flow, 456 Anodes (anodic reactions), 8 atmospheric corrosion, 32 corrosion cells, 3–4 Daniell cells, 7 EN, 441 galvanic series, 266 LCDT, 303–304 SCC, 325 steel, 4–5, 5f ZRA, 446 Anodic passivating inhibitors, 207–208, 733, 734f Anodic polarization, 254f, 426, 599, 734 Anodic protection, 637 corrosion potential, 452 Anodic surface, galvanic corrosion, 268–269 Anodizing protective coatings, 679–685, 682t, 683f, 684f Antimony, 734 brasses, 538 zirconium, 635 AOD. See Argon-oxygen decarburization API. See American Petroleum Institute APS. See Adenosine 5-phosphosulfate Area effects, galvanic corrosion, 267–270, 268f–271f Argon-oxygen decarburization (AOD), 552 duplex stainless steel, 605 ferritic stainless steel, 601–602 Aristotle, 1 Armco iron, 609 Army Corps of Engineers, 124 Arsenic, 284, 450, 734 brasses, 538 Artificial neural network (ANN), 236–239, 237f–240f, 238t Asbestos: concrete, 67t copper, 271 Ashby, Michael, 479 ASIP. See Aircraft structural integrity program ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engineers Asset performance metrics, 366 ASTM. See American Society for Testing and Materials Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria (Pourbaix), 264, 266t Atmospheric corrosion, 25–61, 26f aerosol particles, 34–37, 35f–37f aircraft, 55–58, 56f–59f copper, 528 corrosion inhibitors, 739–743, 740t, 741f, 742f coupon exposure, 38–39, 38f–40f tests, 44, 44f dew point, 32–34, 33f factors and measurement, 31–40 gaseous pollutants, 30–31, 37–38, 37f indoors, 29–31, 31t iron, 32, 32f maps, 50–51, 50f–52f material selection, 58–60, 59f, 60f prevention and control, 50–61 RH, 29, 32–34, 33f tests, 41–50, 41f–49f, 46t tin, 617 TOW, 27, 32–34 ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate Austenitic stainless steel, 59–60, 591–592, 591t, 602–603 BWR, 406 chloride, 86 crevice corrosion, 86 filler metals, 595–596 IGC, 279 passive films, 686 rebar, 167 SCC, 90, 321ne seawater, 115 sensitization, 50, 279, 281, 421 welding, 594, 596 Automobiles, 12–14, 13f, 14f closed recirculated cooling water systems, 83–84 ion implantation, 697 magnesium alloys, 571 salt spray testing, 47f wrought aluminum, 513 zinc alloys, 633 Average weather conditions, atmospheric corrosion, 42 Avogadro’s number, 11 AWWA. See American Water Works Association B Check, aircraft, 407 Bacteria, 187–189. See also Biofilm; Sulfate reducing bacteria aluminum, 146 fresh water, 76 methane, 189 MIC, 189 seawater, 111 sulfates, 188f sulfur cycle, 188f ZRA, 446 Basic event, FTA, 376, 378f Batch treatment, corrosion inhibitors, 758 Battelle Institute, 38768 INDEX Batteries: Daniell cells, 5 electroplating cells, 138 Bayesian network (BN), 353 Bernoulli principle, 297 Beryllium, 635 Beta phase titanium alloys, 620 Bicarbonate, 380, 743 Binders, protective coatings, 675–677 Bioaccumulation, corrosion inhibitors, 731–732 Biocides, 198–201, 199t–200t Biodegradation, corrosion inhibitors, 732 Biodeposits, 184–185 Biofilm, 175–202 contents, 178–179 control, 196–202, 197f, 198t–200t cooling towers, 202 formation and growth, 179–181, 181f friction factor, 182–183, 183t MIC, 179, 180–181 thermal conductivity, 183–184, 183t water treatment, 98–100, 99f, 100f Biofouling, 96t, 403t, 538 marine environments, 181 seawater, 112 Biological assays, MIC, 191–192 Bird bath, aircraft, 55, 55f Bismuth, 540, 576, 578 Blackheart malleable cast iron, 525 Blast furnace slag, 169 Blow-down, 86 BN. See Bayesian network Bode plots, 434, 435, 435f, 436f Boiler tube corrosion, 403 Boiling water reactors (BWRs), 92–93, 92f fuel cladding corrosion, 405 IGSCC, 406 Bottom-up modeling, 208–226, 211f, 212t, 213t, 214f, 215f, 216t, 217t, 218f, 223f, 224f, 225t Brackish water, 80–81 carbon steel, 612 copper, 539 soils, 141–142 titanium, 622 Brasses, 532, 538 aluminum, seawater, 116t cold work, 208 cracking, 25 dealloying, 275 dezincification, 276, 276f erosion-corrosion, 295, 295f impinging jet, 318 SCC, 540 seawater, 116t soils, 147 welding, 536 Bresle method, 36 Bronzes, 533, 536, 537t BS 7295-1, 165 Buffering, seawater, 108, 113 Bulk stress, fretting corrosion, 332 BWRs. See Boiling water reactors C Check, aircraft, 408 CA. See Corrosion allowance Cadmium, 523–524 gold, 574 protective coatings, 688t–689t tin, 617 zirconium, 635 Calcium: seawater, 112–115 soils, 142 Calcium carbonate: Larson-Skold index, 105 LSI, 102, 103, 104 PSI, 105 reinforced concrete, 156–158, 157f scaling indices, 101 seawater, 108, 113 Calcium hydroxide, 150 reinforced concrete, 156, 169 Calcium phosphate inhibitors, 217, 217t California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), 16 Caliper tools, pipelines, 393 Caltrans. See California Department of Transportation Carbides: cobalt, 553 nickel, 552 Carbon: austenitic stainless steel, 592 nickel, 552 Carbon dioxide: ANN, 239 biofilm, 180 carbon steel, 612 copper, 539 dezincification, 276 fresh water, 77t magnesium, 572 MIC, 177, 178f molybdenum, 576, 578 niobium, 580 pressure, 456 reinforced concrete, 151, 156 seawater, 108, 113 steam condensate, 82 strong-base anion resins, 101 zinc, 633 Carbon monoxide, 29 Carbon steel, 609–610, 610t, 612–615 BWRs, 93 erosion-corrosion, 294 flow-induced corrosion, 294 fretting corrosion, 332 heat exchanger corrosion, 404 hydrogen blistering, 287 mesa corrosion, 398nf piping, flow-induced corrosion, 290INDEX 769 Carbon steel (Cont.): pitting corrosion, 177, 179f power plants, 406 PWRs, 94 rebar, 166–167, 167f seawater, 109t, 116 sensitization, 509 Case-based reasoning (CBR), 239–240, 240f CASs. See Condition assessment surveys Cast aluminum, 511t, 512–513 grain size, 520 Cast copper, 533f Cast iron, 524–530 alloying, 528 CP, 530, 530f crevice corrosion, 527 fretting corrosion, 527 graphitic corrosion, 527 heat exchangers, 404 IGC, 527 piping, 68–69 graphitic corrosion, 276–277 pitting corrosion, 527 SCC, 527–528 seawater, 109t, 116t soils, 125, 129, 145, 146f SRB, 187 transmission water pipes, 67t water mains, 16 welding, 526–527, 527t Cast magnesium, 571–572 Cast stainless steel, 593 Castings, alloying, 503–504, 504f Catalytic converters, waste heat boilers, 92 Cathodes (cathodic reactions), 9f–11f acrylic coatings, 3 atmospheric corrosion, 32 corrosion cells, 3–4 corrosion inhibitors, 733–736, 734f, 743, 747–748 Danielle cells, 7 deposition corrosion, 273 EN, 441 galvanic corrosion, 272 hydrogen ions, 8 iron, 10, 11f LCDT, 304 oxygen reduction as, 9 protective coatings, 657 steel, 4–5, 5f water splitting, 8 ZRA, 446 Cathodic depolarization: biofilm, 184 oxygen, 76, 733 ZRA, 446 Cathodic polarization, 112, 426, 733–734 Cathodic protection (CP): aluminum, 145–146 automobile, 14 cast iron, 530, 530f Cathodic protection (Cont.): cavitation, 297, 298 corrosion potential, 452 ICCP, 15 offshore pipelines, 397 platinum, 574 protective coatings, 712 reinforced concrete, 15–16, 162, 163t seawater, 113 soils, 127 calcium, 142 concrete, 147 copper, 147 hydrogen, 141 pipelines, 143 plant piping, 144 zinc, 207 Cathodic reaction. See Cathodes (cathodic reactions) Cathodic surface: crevice corrosion, 258 galvanic corrosion, 268–269 Cation-exchange capacity (CEC), 125 Caustic gouging, 404 Cavitation, 288, 289f, 296–299, 297f, 640t CBDA. See Corrosion-based design analysis CBR. See Case-based reasoning CDA. See Copper Development Association CEC. See Cation-exchange capacity Cement clinker, 150 Ceramic protective coatings, 679 CF. See Corrosion fatigue CHARM. See Chemical hazard assessment and risk management Chelating agents, 74 Chemical analysis of process samples, 458–459 Chemical hazard assessment and risk management (CHARM), 732 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 696, 697t, 699t Chloride: aerosol particles, 35, 35f alloying, 503 atmospheric corrosion, 27, 28 austenitic stainless steel, 602 brackish water, 81 BWRs, 94 cast iron, 529 concrete degradation, 16 copper, 528–539 corrosion inhibitors, 737, 743 crevice corrosion, 258, 262 drinking water, 81 duplex stainless steel, 593, 605 ferritic stainless steel, 590 fresh water, 77t heat exchangers, 86 HSLA, 610 Larson-Skold index, 105 LSI, 105 martensitic stainless steel, 589 nickel, 557, 558–559770 INDEX Chloride (Cont.): offshore pipelines, 398 pitting corrosion, 251, 558–559 protective coatings, 656 PWRs, 94 reinforced concrete, 151, 154–156 condition assessment, 172 ICCP, 163–164, 164f, 165f residual oxidant, 458 SCC, 321, 322, 328 seawater, 108 soils, 126, 135 zinc, 146 stainless steel, 147, 598 strong-base anion resins, 101 supercritical steam plants, 90 titanium, 630–631 zirconium, 636 Chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio (CSMR), 68, 68f, 106, 107t Chlorimet, 550 Chlorination, 100 CHLOR*TEST, 36, 36f Chromate filming, 685–686 Chromic acid anodizing, 683 Chromium: alloying additions, 509 aluminum, 512 austenitic stainless steel, 591, 592 BWRs, 93 cast iron, 528, 529 cobalt, 553 crevice corrosion, 258 cyclic polarization test, 428 electroplating, 690 erosion-corrosion, 295 ferritic stainless steel, 590, 601 HSLA, 609 iron alloys, 10 martensitic stainless steel, 589, 603 nickel, 551, 558 phase diagrams, 501–502, 502f, 503f protective coatings, 689t protective film, 558 stainless steel, 599–601 stainless steel IGC, 279 steel, 59, 615 titanium, 618 white cast iron, 524 Chromium-iron alloys, 10 CIPS. See Closed-interval potential survey Cladding, 182, 691–693, 693f BWRs, 93 fuel corrosion, 405 PWRs, 93 Classify Industrial and Marine Atmospheres (CLIMAT), 39, 39f, 40f tests, 44, 44f Clean Air Act, U.S., 670 CLIMAT. See Classify Industrial and Marine Atmospheres Closed-interval potential survey (CIPS), pipelines, 386, 386nc, 387f Closed recirculated cooling water systems, 83–84 Closed vapor spaces, corrosion inhibitors, 755 CMASs. See Coupled multielectrode array systems CMPM. See Corrosion management practice model CMPs. See Corrosion management practices CMS. See Corrosion management system Co-58, 94 Co-60, 94 Cobalt (alloys), 553, 562t dealloying, 275 HE, 559 nickel, 552 PWRs, 94 SCC, 559 Coefficient of expansion: molybdenum, 577 titanium, 618 COF. See Consequences of failure Cold wall effect, 655 Cold work, 2, 499 aluminum alloys, 278 annealing, 505–507, 505f, 506f austenitic stainless steel, 592 brasses, 208 ductility, 506 high-performance alloys, 556 niobium, 578 SCC, 359 tantalum, 582 Columbium. See Niobium Columns: cracking, 359–360, 360f SCC, 359–360, 360f zirconium, 636 Combustion torch, 694t, 696t, 698t Community metabolism, MIC, 184 Completed maintenance KPI, 365 Concentration, CBDA, 363 Concentration cells: soils, 135–137, 135f, 136f stainless steel, 147 Concrete. See also Reinforced concrete asbestos, 67t HPC, 169 prestressed pipes, 75t soils, 147–148 transmission water pipes, 67t Condition assessment surveys (CASs), 490 Conditional event, FTA, 376, 378f Conductivity, 454, 454f. See also Thermal conductivity aluminum, 517 copper, 531t copper-nickel alloys, 542 Consequences of failure (COF), 356 aircraft, 408 RBI, 370–371 risk matrices, 375–376, 375f Constant phase element (CPE), 434INDEX 771 Constraint optimization, 353–354 Continuous injection, corrosion inhibitors, 758 Cooling towers, biofilm, 180, 202 Cooling water systems, 83–88, 84f, 85f, 87f, 88f, 88t ozone, 214–216, 216t Coordinated phosphate, 89 Copper (alloys), 270–271, 530–549, 532t aluminum, 278, 512 BWRs, 92 carbon steel, 609 cast iron, 528 coupons, 38 decorative corrosion products, 546–549 distribution systems, soils, 143 electroplating: aluminum, 9 steel, 4, 4f erosion-corrosion, 294 flow-induced corrosion, 292, 293t fresh water, 76 galvanic corrosion, 270, 271f heat exchangers, 86, 404 HIC, 286 HSLA, 609 indoor atmospheric corrosion, 31, 31t marine biofouling, 182 microfouling, 544 nickel, 551 piping, 66, 68 deposition corrosion, 273 drinking water, 69 MIC, 16 soils, 144 pitting corrosion, 250, 252f, 253f piping, 16 precipitation hardening, 507 reactivity, 482 reinforced concrete, 172 SCC, 540 seawater, 117 silver, 574 soils, 129, 147 steam condensate, 82 steel, 59, 615 supercritical steam plants, 91 tin, 617 trade names, 534t–535t tungsten, 586 UNS, 531–532 welding, 531t, 533–536 zinc: atmospheric corrosion, 27t Daniell cells, 5–7 Copper Development Association (CDA), 532 Copper hydroxide, 100 Copper-nickel alloys, 533 dealloying, 275 erosion-corrosion, 295–296, 545 galvanic corrosion, 543–544, 543t, 544t marine environments, 540–542, 541t Copper-nickel alloys (Cont.): phase diagrams, 501, 502f, 504f pitting corrosion, 542 protective film, 544–545 SCC, 543 seawater, 544–545, 546 velocity, 545, 545t welding, 536 Copper sulfate electrode (CSE), 125 reinforced concrete, 172 Cor-ten, 58–59 CORRAG, 27, 27t, 223 Corrosion allowance (CA), 365, 365na corrosion inhibitors, 729 Corrosion-based design analysis (CBDA), 360–363, 361f, 362f Corrosion cells: anodic sites, 3–4 cathode sites, 3–4 ENA, 439 fluorescence, 3 materials selection, 492 oxygen, 4 sodium chloride, 4 soils, 129–140, 130f, 131f, 132t, 133f–140f auxiliary effects, 140–142 visualization, 3–5, 4f, 5f Corrosion costs, 17–19, 19t, 20f categorization, 345–348, 345f, 346f corrosion inhibitors, 729–730, 730f Corrosion Data Survey of Metals, 483 Corrosion Data Survey of Nonmetals, 483 Corrosion Engineers Reference Book (NACE), 103–104 Corrosion failures, 247–339 investigating, 334–339, 335f, 336f materials selection, 495 mechanisms and forms, 248–334, 249f protective coating: chromate filming, 685–686 salts, 655–658, 656f, 657f, 659f protective coatings, 653–655, 653f, 654f, 655t Corrosion fatigue (CF), 94, 249, 329–330, 329f, 330f pitting corrosion, 482 power industry, 401 power plant turbines, 405 SCC, 325 waterside corrosion, 404 Corrosion inhibitors, 158, 159, 288, 458, 723–763 application techniques, 758–762, 761t atmospheric corrosion, 739–743, 740t, 741f, 742f availability, 728–730, 729f, 730f cathodic reactions, 733–736, 734f concentration and performance, 760–762 efficiency, 725–726, 726f, 727f, 728t environmental assessment, 731–733, 743–756 flow-induced corrosion, 294 green, 756–758 LPR, 431 oil and gas, 751–755 pigments, 3772 INDEX Corrosion inhibitors (Cont.): protective coatings, 674, 759 reinforced concrete, 167 risk categories, 730, 731t safety, 762–763 SCC, 328 selection, 760 solid particle impingement, 299 temperature, 755 types, 733–743, 734f, 736f–738f, 740t, 741f, 742f water distribution systems, 70 Corrosion loops, 72 Corrosion management, 344–408, 349f financial tools, 352–354 industrial examples, 381–408, 382t, 383t, 384f, 385f, 387f, 389f, 392f, 395f–397f, 399t, 402t, 403t, 404f, 405t, 409f, 410f inspection strategies, 357–381, 358f–362f, 364t, 367t, 368f, 369f, 373f, 373t, 375f, 377f–379f, 381f maintenance strategies, 354–357 NACE IMPACT study, 18–19, 348–354, 352f strategies, 345–348 top-down modeling, 226–229, 228f Corrosion management practice model (CMPM), 348–350, 349t, 350t Corrosion management practices (CMPs), 348, 350–352 Corrosion management system (CMS), 348, 352 Corrosion monitoring, 413–474 data communication and analysis, 474 defined, 413–415 direct intrusive techniques, 417–446 direct nonintrusive techniques, 446–450, 447f–449f electrochemical reactions, 426–446, 427f, 429f–440f, 430t, 442f–445f ER, 417, 423–425, 423f, 424f indirect techniques, 415t inductive resistance probes, 425–426, 425f intrusive techniques, 415t locations, 459–461, 459f, 460f mass loss coupons, 417–423, 417f, 418f, 420f, 422f nonintrusive techniques, 415t offline techniques, 416t, 457–459 online techniques, 416t, 450–457, 451f, 452f, 454f, 455f physical techniques, 417–426 potentiodynamic polarization, 426–434, 427f, 429f–434f, 430t probe design and selection, 465–473, 466f, 467f, 467t, 469f–472f process control, 462–464, 463f response modeling, 464–465, 465f response time, 466–468, 466f, 467f, 467t sensitivity, 466–468, 466f, 467f, 467t systems, 461–462 Corrosion potential, 426, 452–453 Corrosion prevention and control (CPAC), 479–480, 487, 491 materials section, 495–496 metallurgy, 508–510 Corrosion prevention compounds (CPCs), 495, 678, 740–742, 741f, 742f Corrosion rate (CR), 365 corrosion inhibitors, 729, 729f coupons, 419 EIS, 434 ENA, 440 ER, 424 LPR, 432 nickel, 558 zinc, 633 zirconium, 636 Corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs), 730 Corrosion under insulation (CUI): crevice corrosion, 43 materials selection, 495 protective coatings, 703 Cost-adding methodology, 353 Cost of corrosion KPI, 363–365 Coupled multielectrode array systems (CMASs), 471–473, 472f dew point, 456 Coupon immersion tests, 428–429 Coupons: atmospheric corrosion, 38–39, 38f–40f tests, 44, 44f cleaning and evaluation, 421–423, 422f crevice corrosion, 418, 420, 420f galvanic corrosion, 420 HAZ, 421 heat transfer, 421 mass loss, 417–423, 417f, 418f, 420f, 422f MIC, 193–194 rotating cage, 311 rotating cylinder, 307 SCC, 418, 421 sensitization, 421 uniform corrosion, 419 weight loss, 72 Coverage completeness, protective coatings, 707 CP. See Cathodic protection CPAC. See Corrosion prevention and control CPCs. See Corrosion prevention compounds CPE. See Constant phase element CR. See Corrosion rate Cracking. See also Environmental cracking; Hydrogen-induced cracking; Stress corrosion cracking aluminum, 518 cast iron, 526–527 columns, 359–360, 360f detection tools, 393 heat exchangers, 360 piping, 360, 361f reactors, 359, 359f reinforced concrete, 151, 151f, 154, 155f alkali-aggregate reaction, 173 soils, 147 steel, 611–612 titanium, 621INDEX 773 CRAs. See Corrosion resistant alloys Crevice corrosion, 256–264, 257f, 259f–263f, 259t austenitic stainless steel, 86 cast iron, 527 coupons, 418, 420, 420f CUI, 43 duplex stainless steel, 86, 604t heat exchangers, 86 offshore pipelines, 397 stainless steel, 604t, 605 testing, 261–262 Critical pitting potential, 253–255, 254f, 254t Crystal structure, 496–498, 497f, 498f CSE. See Copper sulfate electrode CSMR. See Chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio CUI. See Corrosion under insulation Cushman, A. S., 3, 4, 207 CVD. See Chemical vapor deposition Cyanide, 284, 303, 459 brasses, 538 Cyclic corrosion testing, 48 Cyclic polarization test, 428 D Check, aircraft, 408 Damage to date (DDT), 365 Daniell cells, 5–8, 6f, 7f DC polarization, corrosion monitoring, 426–434, 427f, 429f–434f, 430t DCVG. See Direct current voltage gradient DDT. See Damage to date Dealloying, 273–277, 275t coupons, 418 heat exchanger corrosion, 404 Dehumidification, atmospheric corrosion, 60–61 Deicing salt, 52, 53f, 54f, 55 reinforced concrete, 155 Deionization, 82 Demineralized water, 82 supercritical steam plants, 90 Denickelification, copper-nickel, 543 Department of Defense, U.S. (DoD), 353, 357 Department of the Interior, U.S., 396 Department of Transportation, U.S. (DOT), 382 Deposition accumulation monitors, 194–195, 195f Deposition corrosion, 9, 273 DeSilva, F. J., 100 Detonation gun, 694t, 696t, 698t Detroit Water Sewerage Department (DWSD), 67–68 Dew point, 32–34, 33f, 456 Dezincification, 276, 276f Differential aeration cells, 256, 257f Dilute electrolyte salt fog/dry test, 50 Dimensional stable anodes (DSAs), 622 DIN/BS/EN 12696, 163 Direct current voltage gradient (DCVG), 386, 386nb, 387f Dissimilar metal corrosion. See Galvanic corrosion Dissolution/reprecipitation, dealloying, 277 Dissolved oxygen (DO), 455, 455f carbon steel, 612 corrosion inhibitors, 749 crevice corrosion, 256 deposition corrosion, 273 flow-induced corrosion, 290 fresh water, 76–78, 78f seawater, 109–111 soils, 124f steam condensate, 82 steam generating systems, 89 supercritical steam plants, 90 water, 67 steel, 79–80, 80f zinc, 633 Dissolved solids. See also Total dissolved solids fresh water, 78t Dissolving wall method, flow-induced corrosion, 303 Distilled water, 82 Distribution systems, soils, 143 DNA, MIC, 193 DO. See Dissolved oxygen DoD. See Department of Defense, U.S. DOT. See Department of Transportation, U.S. Double-shell tanks (DSTs), 468–470, 469f, 470f Drinking water (potable water), 69, 81, 351 Droplet corrosion, 210 Dry film gauging, protective coatings, 705, 709f DSAs. See Dimensional stable anodes DSTs. See Double-shell tanks Ductile cast iron, 525–526 transmission water pipes, 67t water mains, 16 Ductility: austenitic stainless steel, 592 cold work, 506 copper, 531t ferritic stainless steel, 590 hydrogen attack, 286 IGC, 277 stainless steel, 166 tantalum, 580 Dunstan, W. R., 207 Duplex stainless steel, 593, 593t, 603–605, 604t crevice corrosion, 86 rebar, 167 seawater, 115 welding, 595, 597 Duralumin, 507 Duranickel, 549 Durichlor 51, 529–530 Duriron, 529–530 Dwarf cells, 187 DWSD. See Detroit Water Sewerage Department Ebullition, 78 EC. See Environmental cracking ECA. See Electrokinetic charge ECDA. See External corrosion direct assessment EDA. See Environmental deterioration analysis774 INDEX Eden, D. A., 439 EIS. See Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy Elastic wave tools, cracking, 393 Electric arc spraying, 694t, 696t, 698t, 700f–702f Electric generator corrosion, 406 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 94, 401 Electrical resistance (ER), 190 corrosion monitoring, 417, 423–425, 423f, 424f Electrochemical hydrogen patch probe, 451, 452f Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), 426, 434–437, 434f–437f, 710 ANN, 239 Electrochemical noise (EN), 437–445, 438f–440f, 442f–445f dew point, 456 Electrochemical noise analysis (ENA), 439–445 Electrochemical potentiodynamic reactivation (EPR), 428 Electrochemical reactions, 5–12 corrosion monitoring, 426–446, 427f, 429f–440f, 430t, 442f–445f Daniell cells, 5–8, 6f, 7f dealloying, 275 Faraday’s law, 11–12 magnesium, 9f Electroendosmosis, 141, 654 Electrogalvanization, 27 Electrokinetic charge (ECA), 82, 82na Electroless plating (EN), 690–691 Electrolyte theory, 2 Electrolytic etching, 587 Electromagnetic acoustic tools, cracking, 393 Electromotive force, 264, 266t Electronics: indoor atmospheric corrosion, 30 tantalum, 580, 582 tungsten, 586 Electrophoretic disposition, 14, 14nd Electroplating, 687, 690 cadmium, 523–524 copper: aluminum, 9 steel, 4, 4f high-strength steel, gold, 574 tin, 617 zinc, 633 sulfuric acid, 7f Electroplating cells, 138 Eluviation horizon, 122 Emissivity: molybdenum, 577 tungsten, 586 Emulsions, corrosion inhibitors, 763 EN. See Electrochemical noise; Electroless plating ENA. See Electrochemical noise analysis Engineering materials. See Materials selection Environmental assessment: corrosion inhibitors, 731–733, 743–756 materials selection, 492–495 Environmental cracking (EC), 319–320, 320t. See also Corrosion fatigue; Stress corrosion cracking Environmental deterioration analysis (EDA), 408, 409f Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 66 CSMR, 106 drinking water, 81 MDEQ, 68 Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), 194 Environmental test rooms, 713 Enzyme-based assays, MIC, 193 EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency Epoxy: pipelines, 143f rotating cylinder, 307 rotating disk, 305 Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel, 165–166 EPR. See Electrochemical potentiodynamic reactivation EPRI. See Electric Power Research Institute ER. See Electrical resistance; Erosion rate Erosion-corrosion, 288, 294–296, 295f, 296f copper-nickel alloys, 545 offshore pipelines, 397 Erosion rate (ER), 299 ESEM. See Environmental scanning electron microscopy ESs. See Expert systems Evans, Ulick, 207, 208 Event tree analysis (ETA), 380–381, 381f EVS. See Extreme value statistics Exfoliation corrosion, 282–284, 282f–284f, 283t, 486, 487f, 519, 520 Expert systems (ESs), 233–236, 233f, 235f, 236f Exponential distribution, 220 External corrosion direct assessment (ECDA), 383–388, 384f, 385f, 387f Extreme value statistics (EVS), 220–221 FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration FAC. See Flow-accelerated corrosion Failure mode, effect and criticality analysis (FMEA, FMECA), 374–375, 380 Failure risk assessment (FRA), 348 Faraday, Michael, 11, 207 Faraday’s law, 11–12 Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 441, 445 Fatigue strength reduction factor, 333 Fatty acid profiles, 193 Fault event, 376, 378f Fault tree analysis (FTA), 376–379, 377f–379f FCCU. See Fluid catalytic cracking unit Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 356, 408 Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), 12, 16, 17–18, 383 Ferralium, 562t–563t Ferritic stainless steel, 590–591, 590t, 601–602 filler metals, 596 sensitization, 281, 421INDEX 775 Ferritic stainless steel (Cont.): SRB, 187 welding, 594–597 Ferrocyanide, 303–304 Ferrous sulfate, 546 Ferroxyl indicator, 2, 2na, 4–5, 4f, 4nc FFT. See Fast Fourier transform FHWA. See Federal Highway Administration Field life (FL), 363–365 Field signature method (FSM), 447–450, 447f–449f Filiform corrosion, 53f, 264 Filler metals, 336f, 508 aluminum, 517 cracking, 518 magnesium, 513 stainless steel, 595–596 Filming corrosion inhibitors, 458 FL. See Field life Flame spraying, 694t, 696t, 698t Flaw size ratio, 329, 329f Flint Water Service Center, 67–68 Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC), 288, 289f, 290, 291f, 294–296, 406 heat exchangers, 404 Flow-induced corrosion, 288–319, 289f–291f, 292t, 293f, 293t, 295f–297f, 300f, 301f, 301t, 304f, 305f, 306t, 307f–313f, 310t, 314t, 315f, 316t, 317f, 318f, 319t Flow loop, 314–315, 314t, 315f Flow regimes, 294, 456 Flow systems, 313–319 Fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU), 380–381, 381f Fluorescence, 3 Fluoride: fresh water, 77t reinforced concrete, 147 seawater, 112 titanium, 628 Flush-mounted electrode design, 468 Fly ash, 169 FMEA. See Failure mode, effect and criticality analysis FMECA. See Failure mode, effect and criticality analysis Foaming, corrosion inhibitors, 762–763 Fontana, M. G., 334 Formaldehyde, 30 Fossil fuel steam plants, 89–90, 91f Fouling, 457. See also Microfouling biofilm, 177, 182 brackish water, 81 heat exchangers, 86, 183 marine environments, 182 MIC, 406 natural waters, 73 FRA. See Failure risk assessment Free jet, 317–318, 317f Freeze-thaw damage, 173 Fresh water, 74–80 DO, 76–78, 78f, 79t impurities, 77t–78t soils, 141–142 Fretting corrosion, 330–333, 331f–333f, 450, 527 Friction factor, biofilm, 182–183, 183t FSM. See Field signature method FTA. See Fault tree analysis Fuel cladding corrosion, 405 Fungi, 86, 98, 177t, 186, 187. See also Biofilm aluminum, 146 Galvanic cathodic protection (GCP), 16, 163–164 Galvanic corrosion, 264–273, 264t, 265t, 267f–273f aluminum, 519 copper-nickel alloys, 543–544, 543t, 544t coupons, 420 dealloying, 273–277, 275t deposition corrosion, 273 heat exchangers, 404 titanium, 631 Galvanic series, 264–266, 265t, 267f, 268f Galvanization: atmospheric corrosion, 26f, 27, 58 service life, 28f distribution systems, soils, 143 fresh water, 76 hot-dip, 691 iron, seawater, 116t piping, 68–69 pitting corrosion, 251f rebar, 167–168 reinforced concrete, 159, 159f–161f soils, 132, 132t–134t steel: seawater, 116t soils, 129 Gamma double prime, 533 Gamma radiography, 446–447 Gardner, H. A., 3, 4, 207 Gas analysis, 457 Gas chromatography, 710 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), 517 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 517 zirconium, 635 Gathering systems, soils, 143 GCP. See Galvanic cathodic protection General immersion tests, protective coatings, 710 Geometry tools, pipelines, 393 Glass protective coatings, 679 GMAW. See Gas metal arc welding GNP. See Gross national product Gold, 482, 573–574, 574t Goulding, E., 207 Grain size (boundary): austenitic stainless steel, 592 cast aluminum, 520 high-performance alloys, 550 magnesium, 572 metallurgy, 498–501, 498f, 500f Graphite, 145, 524–525 Graphitic corrosion, 276–277, 404, 527 Gray cast iron, 525, 526t Green inhibitors, 756–758776 INDEX Greene, N. D., 334 Gross national product (GNP), 17 Groundwater, 74–76, 388 GTAW. See Gas tungsten arc welding Gunmetal, 116t Hafnium, 633, 635 Half-cell potential measurements, 74t, 75t, 171–172, 172f Halides, 458 Hall-Heroult process, 511 Hall-Petch relation, 499 Halo, concrete, 16 Hard water, 74 Hardcoating, 683 Hardness: aluminum, 512 austenitic stainless steel, 591t cooling water systems, 86 duplex stainless steel, 593t ferritic stainless steel, 590t fresh water, 77t fretting corrosion, 330 HE, 287 martensite transformation, 508 martensitic stainless steel, 590t PH stainless steel, 592t silver, 574 weak-acid cation resins, 101 zirconium, 633 Harmonized mandatory control scheme (HMCS), 732 Harmonized offshore chemical notification format (HOCNF), 732 Hastelloys, 286, 550, 557, 558, 560, 563t–564t HAZ. See Heat affected zone Hazard and operability (HAZOP), 372–374, 373f, 373t Hazard quotient (HQ), 732, 733 HAZOP. See Hazard and operability HCA. See High consequence area HE. See Hydrogen embrittlement Heap, Howard, 357 Heat affected zone (HAZ): aluminum, 517–518 bronze, 536 cast iron, 526 coupons, 421 duplex stainless steel, 595, 605 ferritic stainless steel, 594, 596–597 gamma radiography, 446 hydrocarbon environment corrosion, 470 martensitic stainless steel, 595 stainless steel, 279–281, 280f steel, 611 titanium, 621 welding, 508 Heat exchangers, 86–87, 86f, 88f, 88t austenitic stainless steel, 603 corrosion, 404 cracking, 360 zirconium, 636 Heat transfer: corrosion inhibitors, 724, 762 coupons, 421 titanium, 622 Heat transfer data (HTD), 304 orifice, 316, 316t Heat treatment: aluminum, 519–520 high-performance alloys, 555 metallurgy, 504–508, 505f, 506f stainless steel, 597–598 Heavy metals: bacteria, 187 brackish water, 81 fresh water, 76 magnesium, 572 Helical coil, 39 HELP. See Hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity HIC. See Hydrogen-induced cracking HICs. See Hybrid integrated circuits High-chromium white cast iron, 524 High consequence area (HCA), 388 High-performance alloys, 549–560, 551t, 561t–570t iron-nickel, 550–553 nickel, 550–553 SCC, 557 welding, 553–556 High-performance concrete (HPC), 169 High-pressure die-casting process (HPDC), 571 High-purity metals, 508–509, 519 High-solids protective coatings, 673–674 High-speed autoclave testing (HSAT), 309–310 High-strength low alloy (HSLA) steel, 609–610 atmospheric corrosion, 58–59, 59f fatigue strength reduction factor, 333 fretting corrosion, 332 hydrogen, 162 High-strength steel: plating, gold, 574 SCC, 328 High-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF), 694t, 696t, 698t, 700f Higher-solids protective coatings, 674 Hladky, K., 434 HMCS. See Harmonized mandatory control scheme HOCNF. See Harmonized offshore chemical notification format Holiday detection, 713–714, 713f–714f Homogenization anneal, 505 Hot-dip galvanizing, 691 Hot spots, 357–359, 358f, 640t HPC. See High-performance concrete HPDC. See High-pressure die-casting process HQ. See Hazard quotient HSAT. See High-speed autoclave testing HSLA. See High-strength low alloy steel HTD. See Heat transfer data HVOF. See High-velocity oxy-fuel Hybrid integrated circuits (HICs), 30 Hydraulic cement protective coating, 679, 681fINDEX 777 Hydrazine: solid particle impingement, 299 steam generating systems, 89 Hydrocarbon environment corrosion, 470–471, 471f Hydrogen (ions), 2 aluminum, 520 aluminum welds, 517–518 cathodic reactions, 8 Daniell cells, 7 HSLA, 162 molybdenum, 576 niobium, 580 offshore pipelines, 398 protective coatings, 658 soils, 141 steam condensate, 82 Hydrogen attack, 284–288, 287f power plants, 404 Hydrogen embrittlement (HE), 284–286 cadmium, 524 carbon steel, 614–615 cobalt, 559 gold, 574 hardness, 287 tantalum, 575, 585 titanium, 621, 632 Hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP), 285, 286 Hydrogen fuel cell probe, 451, 452f Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), 286, 287f, 450–451 iron, 287 nuclear waste containers, 222, 223f tensile strength, 287 Hydrogen monitoring, 450–452, 451f, 452f Hydrogen pressure (vacuum) probe, 451, 451f Hydrogen reduction, 9 Hydrogen sulfide, 77t, 142f, 538, 578 Hydroscope (remote field inspection), 74t, 75t Hydrostatic testing, 391 Hydrous ferrous oxide, 480 Hydroxyl ions: cathodic reactions, 3 crevice corrosion, 258 phenolphthalein, 3 reinforced concrete, 156, 165 seawater, 112–113 steam generating systems, 89 IAP. See Ion activity product IBED. See Ion beam-enhanced deposition Ibero-American Atmospheric Corrosion Map Project (MICAT), 225 ICCP. See Impressed current cathodic protection ICDA. See Internal corrosion direct assessment ICP Materials. See International Cooperation Program on Effects on Materials IGA. See Intergranular attack IGC. See Intergranular corrosion IGSCC. See Intergranular stress corrosion cracking ILI. See Inline inspection Impact echo/spectral analysis, 75t IMPACT Plus (NACE), 354 IMPACT study (NACE), 18–19, 348–354, 352f Impermeability, protective coatings, 674 Impinging jets, 317–319, 317f, 318f, 319t, 320f Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP), 15 reinforced concrete, 161–165, 162f, 163t, 164f, 165f soils, 141 gathering systems, 143 Impressed current cells, 138, 138f Incipient anode effect, 16 Incoloys, 565t Inconels, 286, 565t–567t Inductive resistance probes, 425–426, 425f Ingot iron, 609 Inhibit gate, 376, 378f Inline inspection (ILI), 391–396, 392f, 395f offshore pipelines, 398 Inorganic (nonmetallic) protective coatings, 679–687 Intelligent pigs. See Inline inspection Intergranular attack (IGA): stainless steel, 508, 598 steam generating systems, 402 Intergranular corrosion (IGC), 249, 277–288 alloying, 504 aluminum, 519 cast iron, 527 exfoliation corrosion, 282–284, 282f–284f, 283t magnesium, 572 pitting corrosion, 255–256, 256f SCC, 324f Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC), 406 Intermediate coatings, 674 Intermetallic phases, nickel, 553 Intermittent spraying, 42–45 Internal corrosion direct assessment (ICDA), 388–396, 389f, 392f, 395f International Cooperation Program on Effects on Materials (ICP Materials), 224–225, 225t International Society Automation (ISA), 31 International Standard Organization (ISO): CORRAG, 27, 27t ISO 9226, 39 ISO 11474, 43 ISO 12944, 660 Ion activity product (IAP), 101 Ion association model, 211–212, 212t, 213t Ion beam-enhanced deposition (IBED), 695t, 697t, 698t Ion exchange resins, 100–101 Ion implantation, 695t, 697t, 699t Ion plating, 695t, 696t, 697t, 698t Iron (alloys). See also Cast iron anodic reactions, 8 atmospheric corrosion, 32, 32f bacteria, 189 biofilm, 179, 184 cathodic reaction, 10, 11f chromium, 10778 INDEX Iron (alloys) (Cont.): crevice corrosion, 258 electrolyte theory, 2 galvanic corrosion, 270 galvanization, seawater, 116t HIC, 287 nickel, 551 protective coatings, 3, 657 reactivity, 482 steam condensate, 82 titanium, 618 zirconium, 633 Iron-nickel alloys, 550–553 Iron piping, 68–69 ISA. See International Society Automation ISO. See International Standard Organization Isocorrosion diagrams, 587–588, 589f Jet-in slit, 317–318, 317f Johnson, W. H., 284 Jowett, A. D., 207 K11430, 59 K12043, 59 KBS. See Knowledge-based system Kennedy Space Center (KSC), 39, 39f, 40f, 42 Key performance indicator (KPI), 353 corrosion inhibitors, 729–730, 730f inspection, 363–366, 367t Key process parameters, RBI, 372 Knowledge-based modeling, 233–240, 233f, 235f–240f, 238t, 240f Knowledge-based system (KBS), 493f, 494f KPI. See Key performance indicator KSC. See Kennedy Space Center Kuch, A., 104 LA. See Location for analysis Laminar flow: flow loop, 314 rotating cylinder, 306, 308f Langelier saturation index (LSI), 102–105, 102t ion association model, 211, 213t LaQue Francis L., 20 Larson-Skold index, 105–106 Laser surface alloying, 695t, 697t, 699t LCC. See Life-cycle costing LCDT. See Limiting current density technique LCR. See Lead and Copper Rule Lead (alloys), 560 aluminum, 512 atmospheric corrosion, 29 bronzes, 537t CSMR, 106, 107t piping, 66, 69 CSMR, 68, 68f SCC, 328 soils, 146–147 zirconium, 635 Lead and Copper Rule (LCR), 67–68 Leaded copper, 533 Leaky capacitor, 434 Levich equation, 305 Life-cycle costing (LCC), 353 cost of corrosion KPI, 363 materials selection, 488–489 Limiting current density technique (LCDT), 302, 303–304, 304f flow loop, 314 orifice, 316 rotating cylinder, 306 Linear polarization resistance (LPR), 190, 388, 430–434, 430f–433f, 430t corrosion potential, 453 EN, 438 Lipopolysaccharides, 179 Lithium, 514, 578 Load-bearing capacity, crevice corrosion, 260 Location for analysis (LA), 361–362, 364t Log-normal distribution, 219–220 Low-alloy steel, 294, 615, 615t. See also High-strength low alloy steel SCC, 321ne Low-alloy white cast iron, 524 LPR. See Linear polarization resistance LSI. See Langelier saturation index Macrocells, reinforced concrete, 156 Magnesium (alloys), 570–572, 573t aluminum, 512, 519, 572 atmospheric corrosion of, tests, 42f biofilm, 179 concrete, soils, 147 deposition corrosion, 273 electrochemical reactions, 9f filler metals, 513 fresh water, 76 IGC, 277–278 precipitation hardening, 507 reactivity, 482 seawater, 112–115 wrought aluminum, 514 Magnesium chloride, 34, 155 Magnetic flux, 417 Magnetic flux leakage (MFL), 74t cracking, 393 ILI, 391, 392f Magnetite, 480 Maintenance optimization, 354 Maintenance significant items (MSIs), 408 Maintenance Steering Groups (MSGs), 356–357 aircraft, 408, 409f, 410f Malleability: copper, 531t nickel, 568t tantalum, 580 Malleable cast iron, 524–525 Malouin, P. J., 691INDEX 779 Manganese: aluminum, 512 austenitic stainless steel, 591 bacteria, 189 biofilm, 179 bronzes, 537t copper-nickel alloys, 542 MIC, 184 stainless steel, 601 steel, 615 titanium, 618 Manual metal arc (MMA): copper, 533 copper-nickel alloys, 536 nickel, 554 steel, 611 Mapping tools, pipelines, 393 Marine environment: aerosol particles, 209–210 wind speed, 210–211, 211f Marine environments: atmospheric corrosion, 28–29 biofouling, 181 copper-nickel alloys, 540–542, 541t epoxy-coated reinforcing steel rebar, 166 fouling, 182 HSLA, 610 protective coatings, 656–657 reinforced concrete, 155 sulfates, 173 titanium, 622 zirconium, 638 Martensite transformation, 507–508 cast iron, 526 Martensitic stainless steel, 589–590, 590t, 603 welding, 595, 597 Martensitic white cast iron, 524 Mass loss coupons, 417–423, 417f, 418f, 420f, 422f Mass transfer coefficient: flow-induced corrosion, 302–303 HTD, 304 surface geometry and corrosion rates, 304–305, 305f Mass transfer data (MTD), 305 orifice, 316, 316t Mass transport control, 288 Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 741 Materials selection, 477–646 candidate materials, 491, 492f CASs, 490 checklist, 487, 488t compromises, 487–491 corrosion aware, 479–486, 480f, 481t–483t, 484f–487f corrosion data, 484–485, 486f corrosion failures, 495 CPAC, 495–496 design considerations, 639–646, 639t–640t, 641f–647f engineering materials, 510–639 Materials selection (Cont.): environmental assessment, 492–495 interaction complexity, 486, 487f LCC, 488–489 metallurgy, 496–510, 497f–499t, 500f, 502f–506f multiple environment combinations, 482–483, 483t–485t past experience, 491 prioritization, 490–491 road map, 491–496 Materials Technology Institute (MTI), 334, 369 Maximum entropy method (MEM), 441, 445 MDEQ. See Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Mechanistic modeling, 208–217, 211f, 212t, 213t, 214f, 215f, 216t, 217t MEM. See Maximum entropy method Mercury: brasses, 538 copper, 540 platinum, 574 silver, 574 Mesa corrosion, 299, 299nd, 398, 398nf Metal inert gas (MIG), 517 brasses, 536 martensitic stainless steel, 597 steel, 611 titanium, 621 Metal ion analysis, 457 Metallic protective coating, 687–702, 687f, 688t–690t, 692t, 693f, 694t–699t, 700f–702f Metallizing. See Thermal spraying Metallurgy, 497f–499t alloying, 501–504, 502f–504f CPAC, 508–510 crystal structure, 496–498, 497f, 498f grain size, 498–499, 498–501, 498f, 500f heat treatment, 504–508, 505f, 506f history, 510 Methane, 189 Methanol, 629 MFL. See Magnetic flux leakage MIC. See Microbially influenced corrosion MICAT. See Ibero-American Atmospheric Corrosion Map Project Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ), 67–68 Microbially influenced corrosion (MIC), 175–202, 177t activity assays, 192 bacteria, 189 biofilm, 179, 180–181 biological assays, 191–192 carbon dioxide, 177, 178f community metabolism, 184 copper piping, 16 deposition accumulation monitors, 194–195, 195f direct inspection, 192 DNA, 193 ECDA, 388780 INDEX Microbially influenced corrosion (Cont.): enzyme-based assays, 193 fatty acid profiles, 193 growth assays, 192 heat exchangers, 86, 404 manganese, 184 monitoring, 189–196, 191t, 194f–197f, 197t pitting corrosion, 179f protective coatings, 184, 185f soils, 124f stainless steel, 147 water distribution systems, 176, 178f Microbiological analysis, 458 Microfouling: copper, 544 seawater, 108 MIG. See Metal inert gas Miller, W. J., 207 Mist flow, 456 MMA. See Manual metal arc Modeling, 205–243 bottom-up, 208–226, 211f, 212t, 213t, 214f, 215f, 216t, 217t, 218f, 223f, 224f, 225t corrosion management, 226–229, 228f historical, 206–208f knowledge-based, 233–240, 233f, 235f–240f, 238t, 240f mechanistic, 208–217, 211f, 212t, 213t, 214f, 215f, 216t, 217t probabilistic, 217–226, 218f, 219t, 223f, 224f, 225t risk-based, 229–231, 230f, 231t, 232f top-down, 226–241, 227f, 228f, 230f, 231t, 232f, 233f, 235f–240f, 238t Modified salt spray tests, 49–50 Modulus of elasticity: molybdenum, 576 reinforced concrete, 171t titanium, 618, 619t Molybdenum (alloys), 575–578, 576t, 579t cast iron, 529 cobalt, 553 duplex stainless steel, 593 erosion-corrosion, 295 ferritic stainless steel, 601 heat exchangers, 86 HSLA, 609 nickel, 281–282, 552 stainless steel, 601 steel, 615 titanium, 618 Molybdenum-rhenium alloy, 576 Molybdenum-tungsten alloy, 576 Monel, 549–550, 557, 558, 560, 567t–568t MSDS. See Materials Safety Data Sheets MSGs. See Maintenance Steering Groups MSIs. See Maintenance significant items MTD. See Mass transfer data MTI. See Materials Technology Institute Muntz metal, 116t NACE. See National Association of Corrosion Engineers Nalco Guide to Cooling-Water Systems Failure Analysis, 336 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE): abrasive spraying, 715–716 CF, 334 Corrosion Engineers Reference Book, 103–104 IMPACT Plus, 354 IMPACT study, 18–19, 348–354, 352f LCC, 488 protective coatings, 708 National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 124 National Physical Laboratory (NPL), 243 Natural gas. See Oil and gas Natural waters, 73–81 ANN, 239 NBS. See National Bureau of Standards NDE. See Nondestructive evaluation Near alpha titanium alloys, 620 Near neutral environments, corrosion inhibitors, 749–750 Nernst diffusion model, flow-induced corrosion, 302 Net positive suction head (NPSH), cavitation, 298–299 Net present value (NPV), 354, 489 Neural networks, 236–239, 237f–240f, 238t Nichrome, 550 Nickel (alloys). See also Copper-nickel alloys alloying, 551, 557–558 aluminum, 512 anodic reactions, 8 austenitic stainless steel, 591, 592 BWRs, 94 cast iron, 526, 528, 529 chloride, 557, 558–559 CR, 558 cyclic polarization test, 428 EN, 690–691 erosion-corrosion, 294, 295 heat exchangers, 86 high-performance alloys, 550–553 HSLA, 609 IGC, 281–282, 282f marine biofouling, 182 martensitic stainless steel, 603 pitting corrosion, 557, 559t precipitation hardening, 507 protective coatings, 690t SCC, 328 seawater, 109t, 117 stainless steel, 601 steel, 59, 615 tin, 617 Nickel 200, 568 Nickel 201, 568t–569t Nickel silvers, 536 Niobium (columbium), 509, 575–576, 576t, 578–580, 581t–582t HE, 285 nickel, 552 zirconium, 633INDEX 781 Nitrates, 81, 328 Nitriding protective coatings, 686 Nitrites, 168 Nitrogen: atmospheric corrosion, 27, 29, 37 chemical analysis of process samples, 459 duplex stainless steel, 595, 605 fresh water, 77t molybdenum, 576, 578 niobium, 580 power plants, 404 titanium, 632 zirconium, 633, 635 Nitronics, 569t–570t Noble metals, 573–574, 574t. See also Gold; Platinum; Silver deposition corrosion, 273 redox, 455 surface diffusion, 277 Nodular cast iron, 525–526 Nondestructive evaluation (NDE), 170, 171t Nonstick protective coatings, 678–679, 679t Normal chemistry, 361 Normal distribution, 219, 224f Nowlan, Stanley, 357 Nozzle, 314–316, 316t, 317f NPL. See National Physical Laboratory NPSH. See Net positive suction head NPV. See Net present value Nuclear boiling water reactors. See Boiling water reactors Nuclear pressurized water reactors. See Pressurized water reactors Nuclear waste containers, HIC, 222, 223f Nucleation event, 251, 332 Obama, Barack, 68 Oddo-Tomson index, 106 Offshore pipelines, corrosion management, 396–398, 396f, 397f, 399t Ohmic inhibitors, 736 Oil and gas (petroleum): aluminum, 517 CMPs, 351 corrosion inhibitors, 751–755 pipelines, corrosion management, 382–396, 382t, 383t, 384f, 385f, 387f, 389f, 392f, 395f offshore, 396–398, 396f, 397f, 399t salts, chemical analysis of process samples, 459 Once-off measurements, 366, 414 Once-through cooling water systems, 83 Open recirculated water cooling systems, 84, 84f, 85f, 86 OR gate, FTA, 376, 378f Organic acid-producing bacteria, 189 Organic horizon, 122 Organic inhibitors, 735f–737f, 736–738 Organic matter: brackish water, 81 fresh water, 76 seawater, 112 Organic protective coatings, 662, 663t–673t, 670, 673–675 Organic solvents, carbon steel, 614 Organophosphates, scale control, 98 Orifice, flow systems, 314–316, 316t, 317f Oxalic acid anodizing, 683 Oxidation reduction (redox) potential, 455–456 Oxygen. See also Dissolved oxygen brackish water, 81 BWRs, 93 cathodic depolarization, 76, 733 corrosion cells, 4 corrosion inhibitors, 743 flow-induced corrosion, 294 niobium, 580 oil and gas, 754 protective coatings, 656, 658 PWRs, 94 reinforced concrete, 151 seawater, 108 soils, 124, 125 steam generating systems, 89 steel, 76–78, 79f titanium, 627, 632 zirconium, 633, 635 ZRA, 446 Oxygen concentration cells, soils, 135–137, 135f, 136f, 145 Oxygen reduction (redox) potential: atmospheric corrosion, 32 as cathodic reaction, 9 chromium-iron, 10 crevice corrosion, 256 soils, 123, 125–126, 126t steam condensate, 82 zinc, 10 Ozone: atmospheric corrosion, 29 cooling tower biofilm, 202 cooling water systems, 214–216, 216t residual oxidant, 458 P: Pack cementation, 686 Pack rust, 260, 260f Paint pigments, 3 Palladium: titanium, 628 zirconium, 638 Parent material, 122 Particulate matter, atmospheric corrosion, 29 Passive films, 686 PCBs, indoor atmospheric corrosion, 30 PE. See Polyethylene Pearlitic blackheart malleable cast iron, 525 PEC. See Predicted environmental concentration Percolation, dealloying, 277 Permeability tests, reinforced concrete, 173 Petrographic examination, reinforced concrete, 172782 INDEX Petroleum. See Oil and gas PH, 453–454, 453nb bacteria, 189 biofilm, 179 carbon steel, 612–613 concrete, soils, 147 corrosion inhibitors, 744–745 corrosion potential, 453 crevice corrosion, 258, 259t ECDA, 388 flow-induced corrosion, 294 fresh water, 76, 77t ion association model, 212 LSI, 102, 103, 104 MIC, 176 Oddo-Tomson index, 106 pitting corrosion, 250 power plants, 406 protective coatings, 657 PSI, 105 PWRs, 94 reactant corrosion inhibitors, 458 reinforced concrete, 151 scale control, 98 SCC, 322 seawater, 108, 112–113 soils, 123, 125 steam generating systems, 89 Stiff-Davis index, 106 strong-acid cation resins, 101 zinc, 633 PH. See Precipitation hardening Phase diagrams, alloying, 501–504, 502f–504f Phase transport control, 288 Phenolphthalein, 3 Phosphates: brackish water, 81 lead, 560 power plants, 404 steam generating systems, 89 Phosphatizing protective coatings, 685 Phosphoric acid anodizing, 683 Phosphorus: brasses, 538 HSLA, 609 martensitic stainless steel, 603 steel, 615 Physical techniques, corrosion monitoring, 417–426 Pickling: magnesium, 572 stainless steel, 598 PH, 592 P&IDs. See Process and instrumentation diagrams Pigments: corrosion inhibitors, 3 paint, 3 protective coatings, 677 Pillowing, 261, 261f, 263 Pinhole leaks, 16 Pipe deformation tools, 393 Pipelines: CMPs, 351 copper-nickel alloys, 545 corrosion monitoring, 461, 461f FTA, 379, 379f martensitic stainless steel, 589 natural gas, corrosion management, 382–396, 382t, 383t, 384f, 385f, 387f, 389f, 392f, 395f offshore, corrosion management, 396–398, 396f, 397f, 399t soils, 142–143, 143f, 144t zinc, 633 Piping, 69–70, 70f carbon steel, flow-induced corrosion, 290 cast iron, 68–69 graphitic corrosion, 276–277 copper, 66, 68 deposition corrosion, 273 MIC, 16 pitting corrosion, 16 cracking, 360, 361f galvanization, 68–69 lead, 66 CSMR, 68, 68f pinhole leaks, 16 power plants, 406 pressure in, 456 soils, 144 steel, 68–69 tantalum, 585 thermal expansion, 400 Pitting corrosion, 248–256, 250f aluminum, 239 carbon steel, 177, 179f cast iron, 527 CF, 482 chloride, 558–559 copper, 250, 252f, 253f piping, 16 copper-nickel alloys, 542 coupons, 418 critical pitting potential, 253–255, 254f, 254t deposition corrosion, 273 duplex stainless steel, 604t EN, 443 ferritic stainless steel, 591 fretting corrosion, 330 heat exchangers, 404 IGC, 255–256, 256f LPR, 434 magnesium, 572 martensitic stainless steel, 589 MIC, 176–177, 179f nickel, 557, 559t offshore pipelines, 397 power plants, 404 SCC, 482 sewer explosion, 249, 251f soils, 142, 142f steel pilings, 145INDEX 783 Pitting corrosion (Cont.): stainless steel, 251, 256, 256f, 604t, 605 water, 249–250 Pitting-resistance equivalent number (PREN), 605 Plasma spraying, 694t, 696t, 698t, 701f Plaster of Paris, 303 Plastics (polymeric materials), soils, 148 Platinum, 574, 574t Pliny the Elder, 1–2 PNEC. See Predicted no effect concentration POD. See Probability of detection POF. See Probability of failure POFC. See Probability of false calls POI. See Probability of identification Poisson distribution, 220 Polarization cells, 426 Polarization resistance. See also Linear polarization resistance corrosion potential, 453 EIS, 434, 437f Polarization scans, 237, 238t Pollutantmass transfer rate, 209 Polyelectrolytes, scale control, 98 Polyethylene (PE), 148 Polymeric materials (plastics), soils, 148 Polyphosphates, scale control, 98 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE): rotating cylinder, 307 rotating disk, 305 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 148 transmission water pipes, 67t Porosity: aluminum welds, 517–518 dealloying, 275 reinforced concrete, 15, 151, 168 soils, 135f steel, 611 titanium, 621 Portland cement, 150 Potable water. See Drinking water Potassium, 150 ferrous ions, 4 molybdenum, 578 seawater, 109 steel, 59 zinc, 4 Potentiodynamic polarization, 426–434, 427f, 429f–434f, 430t Potentiostaircase method, 428 Poultice corrosion, 263 Poultice corrosion, 13–14 Pourbaix, M., 208, 264 Power industry, corrosion management, 401–406, 402t, 403t, 404f, 405t Power spectrum distribution (PSD), 445 Pozzolans, 169 PRA. See Probabilistic risk assessment Prandtl number, 304 Precipitation hardening (PH), 507 stainless steel, 592–593, 592t, 686 Precipitation inhibitors, 735, 739 Predicted environmental concentration (PEC), 733 Predicted no effect concentration (PNEC), 733 PREN. See Pitting-resistance equivalent number Present worth (PW), 489 Pressure, in piping, 456 Pressurized water reactors (PWRs), 93–94, 93f, 402 zirconium, 636, 637 Prestressed concrete pipes, 73 Primary water, 93, 94 Primers, protective coatings, 674 Probabilistic modeling, 217–226, 218f, 219t, 223f, 224f, 225t Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), 382 Probability of detection (POD), 394 Probability of failure (POF), 370 aircraft, 408 risk matrices, 375–376, 375f Probability of false calls (POFC), ILI, 394 Probability of identification (POI), ILI, 394 Process and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), 373 Process industry: aluminum, 516–517 corrosion management, 398–401, 400f ProhesionTM test, 50 Protective coatings, 651–720. See also Cladding; Galvanization aluminum, 520 anodizing, 679–685, 682t, 683f, 684f automobiles, 14, 14nd binders, 675–677 carbon steel, 614–615 components, 675–678 corrosion failures, 653–655, 653f, 654f, 655t chromate filming, 685–686 salts, 655–658, 656f, 657f, 659f corrosion inhibitors, 674, 759 deicing salt, 52, 53f distribution systems, soils, 143 ECDA, 388 erosion-corrosion, 294–295 filiform corrosion, 264 flow-induced corrosion, 289–290, 292t fretting corrosion, 330 functionality, 674–675 high-solids, 673–674 higher-solids, 674 holiday detection, 713–714, 713f–714f hydrogen attacks, 288 inspection and testing, 703–714, 704f–710f, 711t, 712f–714f, 712t iron, 3 magnesium, 572 metallic, 687–702, 687f, 688t–690t, 692t, 693f, 694t–699t, 700f–702f MIC, 184, 185f nitriding, 686 nonorganic, 679–687 nonstick, 678–679, 679t organic
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