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عدد المساهمات : 19002 التقييم : 35506 تاريخ التسجيل : 01/07/2009 الدولة : مصر العمل : مدير منتدى هندسة الإنتاج والتصميم الميكانيكى
| موضوع: كتاب The Science and Technology of Flexible Packaging السبت 22 أبريل 2023, 10:10 pm | |
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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب The Science and Technology of Flexible Packaging Multilayer Films from Resin and Process to End Use Barry A. Morris
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Table of Contents Cover image Title page Table of Contents Copyright Preface Part I: Why multilayer films? Chapter 1. Introduction to flexible packaging Abstract 1.1 History of packaging 1.2 Benefits of packaging 1.3 Size of market 1.4 Packaging value chain 1.5 Needs along the value chain 1.6 Assembling a package: benefits of multiple layers 1.7 Packaging trends References Part II: Basic processes Chapter 2. Converting processes for flexible packaging Abstract 2.1 Extrusion 2.2 Film converting 2.3 Coating and lamination 2.4 Orientation 2.5 Metallization 2.6 Printing References Chapter 3. Flexible packaging equipment Abstract 3.1 Unit operations 3.2 Brief description of packaging equipment References Part III: Material basics Chapter 4. Commonly used plastics and substrates in flexible packaging Abstract 4.1 Polymer resin and substrate function 4.2 Commonly used plastics in flexible packaging 4.3 Commonly used substrates in flexible packaging 4.4 Material specifications 4.5 Regulatory considerations References Chapter 5. Rheology of polymer melts Abstract 5.1 Basic terms 5.2 Importance of rheology in flexible packaging 5.3 Rheological measurements 5.4 Factors influencing polymer rheology 5.5 Relaxation, creep and constitutive equations References Further reading Chapter 6. Polymer blending for packaging applications Abstract 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Why blend? 6.3 Blending processes 6.4 Physics of blending 6.5 Dispersion of rigid particles and nanocomposites 6.6 Rheology of polymer blends 6.7 Characterizing polymer blends 6.8 Conclusion References Part IV. Film properties Chapter 7. Heat sealing in flexible packaging Abstract 7.1 Why it is important 7.2 How to measure 7.3 Typical values 7.4 Factors that influence heat seal performance 7.5 Science of heat sealing 7.6 Modeling heat seal and hot tack 7.7 Easy open seal technology 7.8 Reclosable seal technologies 7.9 Ultrasonic sealing 7.10 Failure analysis and troubleshooting 7.11 Selecting sealant resins References Further reading Chapter 8. Barrier of flexible packaging films Abstract 8.1 Why it is important 8.2 How to measure 8.3 Typical permeation values 8.4 Science of permeation 8.5 Emerging technologies References Chapter 9. Strength, stiffness and abuse resistance of multilayer flexible packaging films Abstract 9.1 Why it is important 9.2 How to measure 9.3 Typical values 9.4 Engineering principles for multilayer films References Chapter 10. Adhesion in multilayer flexible packaging Abstract 10.1 Why adhesion is important 10.2 How to measure adhesion 10.3 Fundamentals 10.4 Tie resin technology 10.5 Laminating adhesive technology References Chapter 11. Thermoforming, orientation, and shrink properties of flexible packaging films Abstract 11.1 Thermoforming 11.2 Orientation and shrink References Chapter 12. Frictional and optical properties of flexible packaging films Abstract 12.1 Frictional properties 12.2 Optical properties References Part V. Effect of the converting process on film properties Chapter 13. Effect of processing on quality of flexible packaging films Abstract 13.1 Thermal stability 13.2 Die lip buildup (die drool) 13.3 Moisture related issues 13.4 Flow maldistribution and instability issues 13.5 Curl References Chapter 14. Effect of the blown film process on film properties Abstract 14.1 Stress–strain history in blown film 14.2 Air versus water quench blown film 14.3 Development of blend morphology in blown film References Chapter 15. Effect of processing on interlayer adhesion Abstract 15.1 Adhesion to substrates in extrusion coating 15.2 Interlayer adhesion in coextrusion Appendix: Relating stress to process control variables in extrusion coating/lamination and cast film processes References Part VI: End use considerations Chapter 16. End-use factors influencing the design of flexible packaging Abstract 16.1 Environmental effects on package performance 16.2 Packaging–product interactions 16.3 Aging 16.4 General considerations 16.5 Cost References Chapter 17. Designing flexible packaging for sustainability Abstract 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Quantifying environmental impact 17.3 End-of-Life Considerations 17.4 Packaging design for sustainability 17.5 Conclusion References Part VII: Structure design and modeling Chapter 18. Analytical and modeling tools for flexible packaging design and process optimization Abstract 18.1 Identification of packaging structures 18.2 Modeling 18.3 Final word References Appendix A. Writing guide for packaging films and other multilayer structures A.1 Guide to multilayer structure writing: packaging and industrial applications Appendix B. Examples of flexible packaging film structures B.1 Medical packaging B.2 Food packaging B.3 Industrial/consumer films Index ‘Note: Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures and “t” indicate tables.’ A AA. See Acrylic acid (AA) Abrasion resistance, 252 ABS. See Acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene (ABS) Abuse resistance, 310e311, 327, 334e335 engineering principles for multilayer films, 318e345 flex fatigue, 317 mechanical properties, 311e313 puncture and impact resistance, 315e316 scratch and abrasion resistance, 316e317 shipping tests for package durability, 317e318 stiffness, 313e314 tear strength, 314 typical values, 318 Acid copolymer resins (ACRs), 196, 547. See also Ethylene acrylic acid; Ethylene methacrylic acid Acid copolymers, 129, 182, 275, 470, 554 ACRs. See Acid copolymer resins (ACRs) Acrylic acid (AA), 275 Acrylic acid-grafted polyethylene (PE-g-AA), 364e365 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), 150 Active packaging, 633e636 antimicrobial, 634e636 odor scavenging, 633e634 oxygen scavenging, 293 Additive technology for control of film friction migrating additives, 439e440 migratory slip additive performance factors, 441e453 nonmigrating additives, 440e441 strategies to reduce COF, 438f theory of friction and how additives work, 437e439 Additives, 94, 140e141. See also Modifiers fillers, 104 in flexible packaging, 104 inorganic antiblocking agent, 104 modifiers, 98e104 stabilizers, 94e98 and treatments, effect on heat seal performance, 197e198 Adherend chemistry, 380e384 Adhesion, 70, 428e429, 501e502, 539. See also Interlayer adhesion to aluminum foil, 251 of multilayer films, 351, 360 adhesion of coatings, 354 boundary layer, 370e371 chemical interaction, 367e370 diffusion, 366e367 fracture mechanics analysis of peel test, 354 mechanical interlocking, 365e366 oxidation of LDPE, 351e352 peel test, 352e354 polymers in coextrusion, 352t tie resin technology, 351, 371e396 wetting and work of adhesion, 361e365 to PE, 251 to substrates in extrusion coating, 539 air gap, 540e566 die, 539e540 effect of coating thickness on peel strength, 573e594 extruder, 539e540 nip, 566e573 Adhesive application, 42 Adhesive lamination, 42, 43f extrusion coating and lamination vs., 44 key components, 42e43 key factors affecting properties, 43e44 Adhesives, 16, 89 Advanced coatings, 299e300 ALD, 300 DLC, 300 Aesthetics, 70 AFM. See Atomic force microscopy (AFM) Aging, 636e639, 638f effects, 246 Air gap, 540 antioxidant and low temperature experiments, 551t contact angle results, 557t cooling, 559e565, 578e579, 584 effects plot for cooling in, 563f extrusion coating trial evaluating factors, 556t guidelines, 565e566 with IR thermometer, 562f Newtonian velocity profile, 541e542 orientation, 554e559 oxidation, 542e554 ozone treatment of melt curtain, 550f on peel strength, 549t sample process time calculations, 542t stress, 554e559 tensile properties of 25-mm EAA coating, 558t TIAG, 540, 565t Air ring, 30 Air-quench blown film. See also Coextrusion blown film; Monolayer blown film process, 447 water-quench blown film, vs., 525e530, 526te527t, 528f, 531t ALD. See Atomic layer deposition (ALD) Alkoxy radicals (RO$), 95 Alkyl radicals (R$), 95 Aluminum foil, 4, 104e105, 272, 364 Amide structure, 446e447 Amorpha in Turkey, 4f Amorphous polyester (APET), 74, 90, 646e647 Amorphous polymers, 410 Anaerobic and pyrolytic waste-to-energy process, 648 Analysis of variance method (ANOVA method), 563 Analytical techniques, 247 Anisotropic shrinkage, 503 Annealing, 104 temperature, 418e419 711ANOVA method. See Analysis of variance method (ANOVA method) Antagonistic effects, 456, 456f Antiblock, 99 additives, 57e58, 440e441 Antifog, 103 additives, 435 Antimicrobial, 634e636 Antioxidant system, 95 Antistat additives, 101e102, 435 APET. See Amorphous polyester (APET) Area creation, 598e603, 601f Area ratio, 600e601 Arrhenius equation, 214, 578 Aseptic packaging, 54 Assembling package, 15e18 ASTM D1003, 453 ASTM D1306 method, 315 ASTM D1746, 453 ASTM D2457, 453 ASTM D2838, 414, 427 ASTM D3354, 437 ASTM D5342 method, 313 ASTM D747 method, 313 ASTM D882, 311 ASTM E96, 268 ASTM F1249 method, 268e269 ASTM F1921, 187 ASTM F392 method, 317 Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 247, 446, 451 Atomic layer deposition (ALD), 299e300 Attenuated total reflectance (ATR), 658 Attribute models, 661, 662f Auto adhesion, 198 early theories, 199e200 B Backside transfer, 245 Bag-in-box packaging, 707, 707t Bakery packaging, 700, 705t “Ballooning” effect, 621 Bar sealing, 61 Barrier, 69e70 bag-in-box liner requirements, 673t screws, 27 selection, 673e674 Barrier packaging, 259 antimicrobial packaging, 261 barrier needs by food type, 262t degree of protection, 265t deleterious pathogens, 260 emerging technologies, 293e300 extrinsic factors, 259, 259t intrinsic factors, 259, 259t measurement, 261 conversion factors, 266t gas permeation, 266e268 moisture vapor transmission rate, 268e269 organic molecules permeation, 269 oxygen permeation value (OPV), 261 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 260 permeation values, 269e278 scalping, 261 science of permeation, 278e293 Base films, 420 Basket weaving, 3e4 Bend under own weight, 313 Bending stiffness, 309, 323e327 comparison of adhesive and extrusion laminated films, 325t force and deflection, 324f model results, 326t redesign of thermoforming web, 327f Beta gauges, 31 Biaxial orientation, 415, 419, 423 Biaxial-orientated polyester (BOPET), 44, 412e413 Biaxial-orientated polypropylene (BOPP), 44, 412e413 Biobased polymers, 91 biosourced monomer-based polymers, 92 PBS, 93e94 PHAs, 92e93 PLA, 92 starch polymers, 94 Biodegradation additives, 649 Biosourced monomer-based polymers, 92 Biot number (Bi number), 564e565 Birefringence, 413 “Black box” approach, 666 Bleached paper, 107 Blend morphology, 167f, 530e532 development in blown film, 530e532 effect of minor phase concentration, 533 elongated second phase, 532f material characteristics, 532e533 processing factors, 533e534 Blending, 149e150, 155. See also Melt blending melt blending, 152e155 morphology development in immiscible blends, 160e169 pellet premixing, 151e152 processes, 150e155 properties vs. percent of polymer, 156f TEMs, 156f thermodynamics, 157e160 Blister packaging, 55 Block copolymers, 78 Blocking, 57e58, 437 force measurement, 437f Blooming additives, 101 Blow-up ratio (BUR), 33, 337e338, 417, 479e480, 516, 594e595 Blown film, 421, 441e442 air ring, 30 air-quench blown film vs. water-quench blown film, 525e530, 526t bubble instability, 479e483, 479fe480f cast film processes vs., 39, 39t coextrusion blown film, 32, 519e525 collapsing frame, 30 cylindrical spiral mandrel die design, 29f development of blend morphology in, 530e534 dual lip air ring, 30f examples, 515 extruder, 29 gauge control, 30e31 haul-off roll, 30 inner bubble cooling, 30 key factors affecting properties, 32e35 line, 504e505 polymers, 28 process, 7, 29, 29f, 515f scale-up, 35, 35t, 516, 517t stressestrain history in, 515e525 tubular die, 29e30 winders, 31f windup, 31e35 Bond strength, 367. See also Seal strength; Peel strength Bonding at interface, 200. See also Adhesion BOPET. See Biaxial-orientated polyester (BOPET) BOPP. See Biaxial-orientated polypropylene (BOPP) Bottom web, 54 Boundary layer adhesion mechanism, 370e371 Branched PE, 77 Branching, 77e78, 140, 140f Long chain (LCB), 77 Short chain (SCB), 77 Breakeven analysis, 644f Brookfield viscometer, 132 Bullet drop test model, 668e669 BUR. See Blow-up ratio (BUR) C Cache strain, 311 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 98 Cantilever tests, 313 Capillary melt shear viscometry, 133 712 INDEXbasic equations, 133e134 corrections to capillary rheology data, 134e135, 134f Capillary number, 161 Capillary rheology data, corrections to, 134e135, 134f Carbon double bonds, 439 Carbonyl index (CI), 543 CarreaueYasuda model, 222, 223t Cast film, 36, 36f blown film processes vs., 39, 39t cast film/extrusion coating, 601 chill roll, 36e37 coextrusion, 37 die, 36 extruder, 36 key factors affecting properties, 37e39 pinning technology, 36e37 windup, 37 CED. See Cohesive energy density (CED) Cellophane, 4, 106 Cereal box liners, 700, 704t CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Chamfering, 469 Channel leakers, 245e246 Chaotic flow, 471 CHDM. See Cyclohexane dimethanol (CHDM) Cheese packaging, 700e705, 706t Chelating agents, 635 Chemical interaction, 367e370 Chemical resistance, 278 Chemistry, 204e205 Chill roll cast film, 36e37 extrusion coating and lamination, 41 release, 99e101 Chlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE), 69 Christensen models, 410 Chrome plating, 363 Chromium-based catalysts, 76, 79 CI. See Carbonyl index (CI) Clamshell packaging, 54e55 Clamshell resins properties, 647t Clarifying agents, 102e103, 457 Clay-coated paper, 108 CLH. See Crystallization line height (CLH) Cling additives, 440 Cling films, 426e428 Clostridium botulinum (C. botulinum), 59, 260 co-PET. See PET copolymer (co-PET) “Coat hanger” dies, 36 Coating adhesion, 354 adhesive resin, 375e378 and lamination adhesive lamination, 42e44 extrusion coating and lamination, 40e42 Coating thickness, 554, 559e563 on peel strength, 573e574 adhesion of LDPE, 574fe575f nonporous substrates, 582e588 peel test analysis, 588e594 Perkins Southwick test method, 575f porous substrates, 576e582 Coca-Cola, 11e12 COCs. See Cyclic olefin copolymers (COCs) Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 111, 621 Coefficient of friction (COF), 57, 99, 197, 435e437, 436f. See also Dynamic COF; Static COF correlation of kinetic, 444f effect of sled weight, 437f Coextrudable adhesives, 378e396 coextrudable tie resin technology, 378e380 factors affecting peel strength, 380e392 Coextrudable tie resin, 392e396 Coextruded films, 322, 707 Coextrusion, 14, 450e451, 455e456, 455f, 465 cast film, 37 extrusion coating and lamination, 41 layer multiplier technology, 369 layer rearrangement in, 483e486 layer redistribution in three-layer coextrusion, 483fe484f Coextrusion blown film, 32, 519e525. See also Air-quench blown film; Monolayer blown film; Water-quench blown film effect of coextrusion, 522f effect of process time, 522f Elmendorf tear strength, 525f machine direction (MD) elongation, 524f rate, 521f yield strength, 524f normalized bubble temperature profile, 520f properties, 523t width of temperature plateau, 521f COF. See Coefficient of friction (COF) Coffee package, 423e424 Cohesive energy density (CED), 157e158, 281 Collapsing frame, 30 Compatibility, 156 Compatibilizers, 104 Complex viscosity, 136, 406, 407f Compostable packaging, 649 Compression ratio, 26e27 Compuplast, 671 Computer modeling and simulation, 661 Condensation, 76 polymers, 470 Conductive sealing (CS). See Hot bar sealing Cone and plate viscometer, 135, 135f Constitutive equations, 141e144, 141f Consumer Packaging Goods (CPG), 12 Consumption patterns, 9e11 Contact angle, 361 Contamination, 244e245 Converting costs, 641 Converting processes, 25, 25t coating and lamination, 40e44 extrusion, 25e29 film converting, 29e40 orientation, 44e46 printing, 46e47 single screw extruder, 25f, 26t Cooling, 559e565 in air gap, 578e579 nonporous substrates, 584 porous substrates, 578e579 kinetics, 33e34 in nip nonporous substrates, 584e586 porous substrates, 579e581 Coordination catalyst polymerization, 76 Copolymers, 78 CoPP. See Random copolymer polypropylene Corotating twin-screw extruder, 154e155 Cost, 640, 667e669 environmental costs, 642e649 financial costs, 640e642, 640t Covalent bonds, 76 Cox-Merz rule, 136 CPET. See Crystalline polyethylene terephthalate (CPET) CPG. See Consumer Packaging Goods (CPG) Crack or peel front, 590. See also Fracture; Peel test Cradle-to-gate LCA, 645 Creep, 130, 141e144, 141f Creep test, 402e403 Creep/recovery, 142e144, 142fe143f Critical attribute, 456 Critical surface tension, 361 Critical to quality (CTQ), 13, 633e634 INDEX 713Critical thickness (for adhesion), 359e360, 359f, 590 Cryogenic microtoming, 657 Crystalline morphology, 75, 337, 415 regions, 273 Crystalline polyethylene terephthalate (CPET), 90, 618 Crystallinity, 402, 609 Crystallization, 205e206 continuum of molecular forces, 205f half time, 406e407, 408f model calculation, 206f secondary, 500e501, 503 stress and strain induced, 208e209, 503 time, 598e603, 601f types of molecular forces, 205t Crystallization line height (CLH), 516e518 Crystals, 74, 281e282 CTFE. See Chlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) CTQ. See Critical to quality (CTQ) Cup method, 268 Curing, 42, 44 Curl, 494, 496f, 506f, 681 aging of three layer films, 499f causes, 494e497 changing tie resin of coextruded blown film, 498t design of experiment and curvature results, 506t differential shrinkage, 495e497, 495fe496f measuring curl, 496f modeling, 502e508 strategies for reduction, 497 balance modulus, thickness, location, and shrinkage of layer, 501e502 matching freezing points or crystallization rates, 499e500 matching shrinkage of layers, 499 post-quench crystallization, 500e501 quench rate increase, 500 reducing polymer crystallinity, 497e498, 498t of two-layer blown film, 497t Cyclic olefin copolymers (COCs), 69, 85e86, 85f, 273, 425e426. See also Biobased polymers Cyclohexane dimethanol (CHDM), 90 Cylindrical spiral mandrel die design, 29f D Dairy products, 260 DDR. See Draw down ratio (DDR) Deadweight hot tack test, 185f tests, 185 Deborah number (De), 35, 122e123, 468e469, 474f, 554, 605e606, 664 Deformation, 311 Delamination, 624e628 peeleseal technology, 351 technology for recycling multilayer films, 648 Design of experiments (DOEs), 661e664 experiments, 663e664 factorial design, 662e663, 663f primary limitation, 665 Diamondlike coatings (DLC), 300 Dichroism, 413 Die, 539e540 cast film, 36 drool, 467e470, 468t exit region, 469, 469f extrusion coating and lamination, 40 swell, 468 Die drip; See Dieddrool Die lip buildup; See Dieddrool Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 194, 403, 405f, 518e519, 657, 659e660 Diffusion, 207, 279, 366e367, 380e381, 630 coefficient, 269, 443 diffusion-in experiment, 443 diffusion-out experiment, 443e444 at interface, 200e201 heat seal process effects, 202 polymer properties, 203e205 Diffusive flux, 609 Dimensional stability, 90 Dimensional thermoformability index (DTI), 403e404 Dioctyl phthalate, 101 Dipole forces, 77 Directional tear technology, 340e342 Dispersion, 159e160 of rigid particles, 169e171 stabilization, 162 DLC. See Diamondlike coatings (DLC) DMA. See Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) DMTA. See Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) DOEs. See Design of experiments (DOEs) Dog bone profile, 472 Domain size, 457e458 Double bubble processes, 45e46, 45f, 412, 415 Dow chemical hot tack tester, 185f Down gauging, 309 Draw down ratio (DDR), 32e33, 321e322, 417, 497, 516, 534, 595, 602, 603f Draw ratio, 473, 474f, 479, 534 Draw resonance, 42, 478e479 Drying, 42, 95 DSC. See Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) DTI. See Dimensional thermoformability index (DTI) Dual bore capillary rheometer, 135f Dual compartment pouch concept, 669f Dual ovenable packaging, 618 DuPont, 661, 674e675 bending stiffness test method, 313, 314f company, 4 disco purge method, 466, 467f sealant selector tool, 675f Selar PA, 297 spring hot tack test, 185e186, 186f Dwell time, 63, 183, 191 Dynamic COF, 436 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), 403, 605 Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), 403 Dynamic rheology measurements, 135e136 Dyne test, 361 E E-beam irradiation, 404. See also Irradiation, Pasteurization; Sterilization E/GMA. See Ethylene-coglycidyl methacrylate (E/GMA) EAA. See Ethylene acrylic acid (EAA) Easy-open seal technology, 230 examples, 231e232, 233f lidding films, 235e238 mechanisms, 231f PB-1 blends, 232e235, 234f, 236f EBA. See Ethylene butyl acrylate (EBA) Ecoflex, 94 ECPs. See Ethylene copolymers (ECPs) Edge bead, 40, 129, 472e478, 474f forces on melt curtain leading to, 477f Edge Tear Instabilities, 478e479 Edge weave, 42, 129, 478e479 Edible oil packaging, 707, 707t Elastic modulus. See Tensile modulus 714 INDEXElasticity, 125 effects, 484e486, 485f Electrical theory of adhesion, 199e200 Electron beam irradiation. See E-beam irradiation Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), 247, 368e369, 446e447, 543, 625 Elmendorf tear resistance test, 314 Elongation, 311 Elongational viscosity, 121f measurements, 533 EMA. See Ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA) EMAA. See Ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA) Emerging barrier technologies advance coatings, 299e300 layer multiplication, 294e297 nanocomposites, 297e299 oxygen scavenging, 293e294 Empirical and statistical models, 661e665 fishbone diagram for heat seal problem, 663f Encapsulation, 635 End use, 130, 391e392 factors influencing flexible packaging design, 617 aging, 636e639 cost, 640e649 environmental effects on package performance, 617e623 general considerations, 640 packagingeproduct interactions, 623e636 End-of-life scenarios, 647e649 Engineering strain, 312 Engineering stress, 312 Environmental costs, 642e649. See also Financial costs breakeven analysis, 644f end-of-life scenarios, 647e649 LCA, 645e647 product life cycle, 645f SaVE Tool, 643t, 644f Environmental effects on package performance. See also Packagingeproduct interactions foods and dosage levels, 623t humidity, 619e621 irradiation, 621e623 pressure, 621 storage modulus, 619f temperature, 617e619 Environmental stress cracking (ESC), 623e624, 628 EPDM. See Ethylene propylene diamine monomer (EPDM) EPR. See Ethyleneepropylene rubber (EPR) Erucamide, 100t, 439, 442, 444t correlation with COF, LLDPE film, 444f surface concentration on LLDPE film, 442e443, 444f, 444t ESC. See Environmental stress cracking (ESC) ESCA. See Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) Essential work of fracture (EWF), 343e344 Ethylene, 79 ethylene-based ionomers, 76e77 ethylene-bis-stearamide, 439 scavenger, 260 Ethylene acrylic acid (EAA), 70, 203, 364e365, 555, 697 N,N-Ethylene bisamide, 439 Ethylene butyl acrylate (EBA), 374 Ethylene copolymers (ECPs), 82e83, 248, 636. See also Biobased polymers in flexible packaging, 82t Ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA), 203 Ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA), 70, 203, 364e365, 582 EMA-based tie resin, 465 Ethylene propylene diamine monomer (EPDM), 103, 150 Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), 6e7, 70, 150, 182, 274, 364e365, 435, 569, 659e660, 698 EVA-based tie resin, 465 Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), 7, 58, 69, 87e88, 87f, 150, 269e272, 406, 407t, 408f, 503, 505, 505t, 507f, 572, 595, 619e620, 658, 698 Ethylene-coglycidyl methacrylate (E/GMA), 369 Ethyleneepropylene rubber (EPR), 158, 383e384 EUP. See European Pharmacopeia (EUP) European Pharmacopeia (EUP), 113 EVA. See Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) EVA copolymerestyrene vinyl phenol (EVAeStVPh), 159 EVOH. See Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) EWF. See Essential work of fracture (EWF) Exfoliation, 170, 297 Extensional flow, 122f Extensional measurements, 136e137 extrudate drawing test, 138f Extensional viscosity, 121f, 403 Extrinsic factors affecting food quality, 259, 259t Extrudate distortion, 125e128, 470e472, 471f Extruder, 539e540 blown film, 29 cast film, 36 extrusion coating and lamination, 40 speed, 533 temperature, 533 Extrusion, 25e29, 124e125 in blown film, 129e130 elasticity, 125 equations for simple shear flows, 126te127t film fabrication processes, 129e130 flow in transfer pipes, 125 flow instabilities, 128e129, 470e493 flow of polymers, 125 haze, 454 melt fracture. See also Extrudate distortion, 125e128 melt swell, 128f processes, 7 recirculation secondary flows, 128f shear thinning behavior, 124e125 velocity profile, 128f viscosity, 125 Extrusion coating, 7, 540f adhesion to substrates in, 539 air gap, 540e566 effect of coating thickness on peel strength, 573e594 die, 539e540 extruder, 539e540 nip, 566e573 and lamination, 40, 40f, 371e378 adhesive lamination vs., 44 coating adhesive resin, 375e378 coextrusion, 41 examples, 374e375 key components, 40e41 key parameters affecting properties, 41e42 polymer, 373e374 substrate, 371e373 F Factorial design, 662e663, 663f Failure analysis for heat sealing, 242. See also Heat sealing analytical techniques, 247 causes, 242e247, 243te244t INDEX 715Failure analysis for heat sealing (Continued) troubleshooting checklist, 247e248 types of seal failures, 242 Falling dart impact test, 315e316 Fast quench process, 447 Fatty acid amides, 99, 439e440, 439t, 447 FCNs. See Food Contact Notifications (FCNs) FDA. See U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) FEA. See Finite element analysis (FEA) Feedblock technology, 32, 37 Fick’s first law, 265e266, 279, 442e443 Fick’s second law, 279 Fickian diffusion equations, 269 Fillers, 104, 140e141 Filling, 58e59 Film, 291e292, 291f blocking, 435 converting, 245 blown film, 29e31 cast film, 36e39 film-to-film COF properties, 436 film-to-metal COF properties, 436 lamination and printing, 12 structure, 386e388, 405e406 temperature, 406e409, 406t thermal properties and thermoforming temperatures, 407t thickness, 193e194, 276e277 and additive level, 447e448, 448f measurement, 31, 401 heat seal curves, 194f Film fabrication, 124e125, 234e235, 442, 447 additives and treatments, 197e198 in blown film, 129e130 elasticity, 125 equations for simple shear flows, 126te127t film fabrication processes, 129e130 film thickness, 193e194 flow in transfer pipes, 125 flow instabilities, 128e129 flow of polymers, 125 LLDPE extrudate distortion, 129f melt fracture, 125e128 melt swell, 128f and package design, 195e197 recirculation secondary flows, 128f sealant resin, 194e195 shear thinning behavior, 124e125 substrate adhesion, 195 thickness measurement, 31 velocity profile, 128f viscosity, 125 Financial costs, 640e642, 640t. See also Environmental costs converting costs, 641 indirect packing costs, 641e642 material costs, 641 modeling, 642 other costs, 642 packing labor and overhead costs, 641 Finite element analysis (FEA), 669 Finite element model, 411 Finite velocity, 467 Flame treatment, 364 Flaring of die exit to reduce die drool, 469 Flex fatigue, 317 Flexible packaging, 3, 9, 642e645, 648. See also Modeling flexible packaging structures film structures food packaging, 699e707 industrial/consumer films, 707e709 medical packaging, 698e699, 698t flexible packaging films, markets for, 697 rheology, importance in, 123e131. See also Rheology end use, 130 extrusion and film fabrication, 124e130 polymer characterization, 130e131 typical shear rate ranges, 124f value chain, 11f Flexible Packaging Association, 9 Flexographic printing, 47, 47f FLH. See Frost line height (FLH) Flood feeding in extrusion, 25. See also Extrusion Flow accelerated reaction rate in coextrusion, 608e609 flow-induced orientation, 609 instabilities in coextrusion, 679 maldistribution and instability issues, 470 bubble instability in blown film, 479e483 draw down, 472e479 interfacial instabilities, 486e493 layer rearrangement in coextrusion, 483e486 sharkskin and extrudate distortion, 470e472 microcalorimetry, 544 Fluoroelastomers, 125e128 Fluoropolymer, 469e470 Food Contact Notifications (FCNs), 111 Food packaging, 10, 110e111, 266e268. See also Industrial/ consumer films; Medical packaging bag-in-box packaging, 707, 707t bakery packaging, 700, 705t cereal box liners, 700, 704t cheese packaging, 700e705, 706t edible oil packaging, 707, 707t fresh-cut produce, 706e707 frozen food packaging, 705e706, 706t milk pouches, 705, 706t poultry/fish packaging, 700, 704t primal meat packaging, 699, 699t processed meat packaging, 699e700 film structures, 701te704t regulatory compliance in European Union, 112e113 in United States, 111e112 retortable pouches, 707 salty snack packaging, 700 snack food packaging, 700, 705t subprimal meat packaging, 699t Foreign contamination, 465 Forming process, 401e402 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR spectroscopy), 109, 247, 287, 368e369, 450, 465, 543, 657e659 IR frequencies of chemical compounds, 659t trichroism, 337e338 Fracture energy, 130, 211, 554, 590 model, 363 mechanics, 210e212 analysis of peel test, 354 Free radical polymerization, 75 Free volume, 443 Freezing line height, 516e518 Fresh-cut produce, 706e707 Frictional properties, 435 additive technology, 437e441 blocking, 437 coefficient of friction, 436e437 importance, 435e436 Frost line, 515 Frost line height (FLH), 33e34, 516, 534 Frozen food packaging, 705e706, 706t FTIR spectroscopy. See Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR spectroscopy) 716 INDEXG Gamma backscatter techniques for measuring film thickness, 31 Gamma capacitance techniques for measuring film thickness, 31 Gamma gauges for measuring film thickness, 31 Gamma ray transmission for measuring film thickness, 31 Gas, 86 fading, 98 flush packaging, 59e60 permeation, 266e268 standard methods for measuring, 267t phase-fluidized bed reactor, 79 Gas barrier, 69, 269 EVOH, 269e272 OPV and MVTR values for high barrier polymers, 270t OTR and MVTR values for barrier substrates, 271t PA, 272 PVDC, 272 resins and substrates, 272 Gas chromatography (GC), 266 Gas sealing. See Hot air sealing Gauge control, 30e31 GC. See Gas chromatography (GC) Gelbo flex test, 317 Generally accepted as safe (GRAS), 111, 634 GHG emissions. See Greenhouse gas emissions (GHG emissions) “Glass” oxide coatings, 290 Gloss, 453, 458 Good and Girifalco equation, 160 Grafted PE, 84 Graham’s law, 293 GRAS. See Generally accepted as safe (GRAS) Gravure printing, 46e47, 46f Grease resistance and barrier, 69, 274 acid copolymers, 275 film thickness, 276e277 ionomers, 275e276 and oil resistance, 251, 251f oil type, 277 paper, 108 PE, 274e275 PP, 276 “Greaseproof paper”, 107 Greenhouse gas emissions (GHG emissions), 617 Grocery sacks, 709, 709t Gross melt fracture, 128, 471 Gussets, 245e246 H Halogens, 425e426 HALS. See Hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS) Haul-off roll, 30 Haze, 481e482, 482f Haze and transparency, 454 coextrusion, 455e456 factors, 456e458 monolayer polyethylene film, 454e455 HDPE. See High density polyethylene (HDPE) Health-care packaging, 113 Heat seal, 212e216, 215f coatings, 235e237 model, 214f, 678e679, 679f operation dwell time, 191 pressure, 192 product contamination, 192e193 seal bar design, 192 temperature, 191e192 process effects, 202 results of horizontal form fill seal trial, 216f temperature curves, 63f, 188e190, 189f temperature window, 189fe190f Heat seal initiation temperature (HSIT), 63, 188 Heat sealing, 60e61, 130, 181, 198 bonding at interface, 200 crystallization, 205e206 die design, 62 diffusion at interface, 200e205 early theories of auto adhesion, 199e200 easy-open seal technology, 230e238 factors influencing performance, 62e65, 191e198 failure analysis, 242e248 in flexible packaging, 181 fracture mechanics, 210e212 hot tack, 182f, 207e210, 216e219 curves, 190e191 interfacial bond strength, 205e206 laboratory tests comparing with packaging line studies, 188 heat seal tests, 183e184 hot tack measurement, 184e188 mechanisms of self-adhesion, 198f reclosable seal technologies, 238e239 science of, 198e212 seal crimper, 62 seal strength of packages, 182e183 sealant, 182 layer, 181 selecting sealant resins, 248e253 squeeze flow, 219e230 troubleshooting, 242e248 types, 61e62 ultra sonic (US), 239e242 Heat transfer models, 672 Heavy duty bags, 708, 708t Hencky strain. See Logarithmic strain Henry’s law, 265 Herman’s orientation function, 339 Heterogeneous nucleation, 102 HFFS. See Horizontal form fill seal (HFFS) High barrier polymers, 277 substrates, 272 High density polyethylene (HDPE), 6, 62, 69, 81e82, 150, 187e188, 195, 273, 467, 494, 545e546, 595, 659, 673, 697 blown film trial, 505t HDPEetieebarrieretieesealant structure, 673 HDPEetieeEVOH test structure, 604 High impact polystyrene (HIPS), 91, 646e647 High pressure processing (HPP), 621. See also Pasteurization; Sterilization High speed puncture, 315e316 High stress region, 469 High-clarity shrink film, 709, 709t Highly crystalline polyolefins, 69 Hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS), 95e98 HIPS. See High impact polystyrene (HIPS) HMWeHDPE films, 421 Homogeneous nucleation, 102 homopolymer polypropylene (hPP or hoPP), 321e322 “Hook”, 371 Hookean solids, 122e123 Horizontal form fill seal (HFFS), 51e53, 53f, 697 Horizontal thermoform fill seal, 53e54, 53f Hot adhesion, 207 Hot air sealing, 61 Hot bar sealing, 195, 239, 242 Hot knife sealing, 61 Hot tack, 51, 65, 65f, 130, 181e182, 182f, 207e210, 216e219, 217f, 219f INDEX 717Hot tack (Continued) comparison of hot tack performance, 208f curves, 190e191, 190f effect of delay time, 220f DSC, 209f master hot tack curve, 218f model prediction, 221f resin design strategies, 208f strain or stress induced crystallization, effect on, 208e209 temperature window breadth, 251 transient elongation viscosity, 210f Hot tack initiation temperature (HTIT), 187, 190e191 Hot wire sealing, 61 HPP. See High pressure processing (HPP) hPP. See homopolymer (hPP) HSIT. See Heat seal initiation temperature (HSIT) HTIT. See Hot tack initiation temperature (HTIT) Humidity. See Relative humidity Hydrocarbon resins, 103 Hydrodynamics, 470 Hydrogen bonding, 77, 415 Hydrogen chloride (HCl), 94e95 Hydroperoxide (ROOH), 95, 260, 630 Hydroxyl (OH), 368 Hydroxyl radicals ($OH), 95 Hyperelastic constitutive models, 410 Hyperelastic model, 410 I 6I. See Isophthalic acid (6I) I-beam, 323e324 ICH. See International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Immiscible blends, 156 Impact resistance, 315 high speed puncture, 315e316 slow puncture, 315 Impartation, 628e630 Improved collection, marking, and sorting systems, 648 Impulse sealing, 61 In-package pasteurization, 617 sterilization processes, 617 Indirect packing costs, 641e642 Induction force, 77 sealing, 61 Industrial/consumer films. See also Food packaging; Medical packaging grocery sacks, 709, 709t heavy duty bags, 708, 708t high-clarity shrink film, 709, 709t stretch cling pallet wrap, 708t stretch wrap, 707e708 trash bags, 708 coextrusion structures, 692te695t Infrared (IR), 155e156. See also ATR; FTIR detectors, 268e269 radiation, 658 spectroscopy, 31 Initial process time studies, 594e598 Inner bubble cooling, 30 Inorganic agents, 635 Institute of Mechanical Engineers study, 8 Interaction parameter, 157 Intercalation of clay, 297 Interfacial/interface, 361 adhesion, 486 bond strength, 205e206 continuum of molecular forces, 205f model calculation, 206f types of molecular forces, 205t defect model, 363 instabilities, 486 fundamental studies, 486e487 input parameters for film structure, 490t, 492t methods to improving stability, 487e493 velocity profile of two-layer flow, 489f tension adhesion to substrates, 361, 363. See also Surface tension; Thermodynamics; Wetting polymer blends, 149, 160e161, 532e533 relationship to solubility parameters, 160, 363 Interlayer adhesion. See also Adhesion in coextrusion, 594 crystallization time, temperature, and area creation, 598e603, 601f flow accelerated reaction rate, 608e609 initial process time studies, 594e598 interfacial area creation and temperature, 600f process time master curve, 603e608 after forming, 410 relating stress to process control variables, 612e613 Intermolecular forces. See Van der Waals forces International Conference on Harmonization (ICH), 113 Intramolecular forces, 77 Intrinsic factors for food safety, 259, 259t Ionic bonding, 415 Ionic bonds, 76e77 Ionomers, 76e77, 82e83, 129, 206, 251, 275e276, 415, 415fe417f, 450, 554 chemical structure, 83f morphology, 83f sealant bonds, 206 IR. See Infrared (IR) Irradiation, 420, 621e623. See also Sterilization ISO 2493 method, 313 ISO 7765e2 method, 316 Isomerism, 77e78 polypropylene, 78f Isophthalic acid (6I), 86 Isotactic polymer, 78 Isotactic polypropylene, 84f J Japanese Pharmacopeia (JP), 113 JMP, 662 K K-BKZ models, 410e411 Kinetic coefficient of friction (COF). See Coefficient of friction; Dynamic COF Kraft paper, 107 L L/D. See Length to diameter ratio (L/D) Labeling laws, 8, 59, 635e636 Laboratory heat seal tests, 183e184 Laboratory hot tack measurement, 184e188 deadweight hot tack test, 185f Dow chemical hot tack tester, 185f DuPont spring test, 186f Packforsk hot tack tester, 186f Laboratory puncture tests, 330 718 INDEXLako Tool, 62 Lamella (polymer crystals), 337, 628. See also Crystalline morphology Laminates, 328e332 Laminations, 420 extrusion coating and, 371e378 Layer multiplication, 294e297, 345 LCA. See Life cycle analysis (LCA) LCB. See Long chain branching (LCB) LDPE. See Low density polyethylene (LDPE) Leakers, 641 Length to diameter ratio (L/D), 131, 468, 471 Lidding films, 235, 423 heat seal coatings, 235e237 peelable seal resins, 237e238 Lidding stock, 699 Life cycle analysis (LCA), 645e647 calculation for clamshell packaging, 647t data for packaging resins and films, 646t model, 674e678, 676t, 677f Light barrier, 69, 278 packaging, 260 Limiting tear resistance, 342 Limonene (also d-limonene), 277, 624, 630e633 Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), 6, 70, 79e81, 124e125, 129, 150, 182, 195, 274, 327e328, 421, 422f, 439, 441, 444f, 444t, 470e471, 473f, 478e479, 545e546, 617e618, 659, 697, 707e708 bubble stability, 480 melt strength additive, 480f, 481, 482f elmendorf tear resistance, 481f LLDPEeLDPE monolayer films, 414e415, 480f melt strength measurements, 480f Linear polymer, 77 Linear stability analysis, 483 Linear thermal shrinkage, 413 Linear viscoelasticity, 131 Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes), 260 LLDPE. See Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) Lockup seal, 230 Logarithmic strain, 312 Long chain branching (LCB), 77, 402, 604 Longer-chain polyamides, 272 Loss modulus, 136 Low density polyethylene (LDPE), 5, 56, 70, 79, 124e125, 150, 182, 373, 439e440, 471, 474f, 478, 540, 542e543, 628, 659, 697 LDPE/paperboard/LDPE/Al/LDPE structure, 625 LDPEeLLDPE blends, 158e159 LDPEetieeEVOH film, 410, 410f LDPEetieeEVOHetieeHDPE films, 421, 604 Low residual stress, 401 Low-melting polymers, 435 sealant layers, 435 Lubricants, 101 M m-LLDPE. See Metallocene LLDPE (m-LLDPE); Metallocene polyethylene plastomer MAA. See Methacrylic acid (MAA) Machine direction (MD), 323, 334, 412, 516, 550e553 Machine direction orientation (MDO), 390 films, 44, 45f, 46 processes, 401, 417, 418f Machine wrap film, 707e708 Maddock screw element, 155f Magnetic flux, 401 Maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene, 84, 84f, 451 MAP. See Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) Material costs, 641 Material selection, 69 Maxwell model, 142e143 MaxwelleStephan equation, 292 MD. See Machine direction (MD) MDO. See Machine direction orientation (MDO) Mechanical interlocking, 365e366 Medical packaging, 698e699, 698t. See also Food packaging; Industrial/consumer films Melt flow index. See Melt index (MI); Melt flow rate (MFR) forming processes, 406 fracture, 102, 125e128. See also Extrudate distortion strength, 122, 252, 403 stretching, 419 swell, 125 ratio, 125 Melt blending, 152 barrier energy transfer screw, 155f circulatory flow patterns, 153f corotating twin-screw extruder, 154e155 distributive and dispersive mixing, 152f Maddock screw element, 155f melting mechanism, 152e153 mixing, 152 elements, 153e154 pin mixing section, 154f Saxton mixing section, 154f stress and velocity distribution, 153f twin-screw extruder modular elements, 155f Melt flow rate (MFR), 131e132, 132t. See also Melt index ranging, 415 viscosity vs. shear rate curves, 132f Melt index (MI), 108e109, 131e132, 132t, 171, 212, 545e546, 664. See also Melt flow rate viscosity vs. shear rate curves, 132f Melt strength additive (MSA), 481, 481t Metalized OPP. See Metalized oriented polypropylene (Metalized OPP) Metalized oriented polypropylene (Metalized OPP), 274 Metallized film, 105e106, 372 balloon film, 423 Metallocene catalysts, 81 Metallocene LLDPE (m-LLDPE), 158e159, 455 Metallocene polyethylene plastomer (mPE), 150, 210 Methacrylic acid (MAA), 275, 547 Methyl ethylene, 84. See also Polypropylene MFR. See Melt flow rate (MFR) MI. See Melt index (MI) Microbes, 621 Microlayer. See also Layer multiplier technology films specialty, 458 technology, 294e295, 344e345 Microscopy, 247, 657e658, 658f Migrating additives, 435, 439e440. See also Antistat additives; Chill roll release; Slip additives effect of increasing film thickness, 446f equilibrium surface concentration increases, 446f model calculation, 445f slip additives of, 442e446 INDEX 719Migrating agents, 635. See also Migrating additives Migratory slip additive performance factors, 441 additives, effect of, 449e450 amide structure, 446e447 coextrusion, 450e451 fatty acid amide slip problems, 451 film fabrication, 447 film thickness and additive level, 447e448 migration of slip additives, 442e446 multilayer structures, 450e451 polymer surface, 441e442 storage temperature, 449 tips and classic references, 452e453 Milk pouches, 705, 706t Minitab, 662 Mixing, 152 elements, 153e154 pin mixing section, 154f Saxton mixing section, 154f MMT. See Montmorillonite (MMT) Modeling, 410e411, 502e508 base case structure, 504t financial costs, 642 sensitivity analysis, 504f Modeling flexible packaging structures, 660e681. See also Flexible packaging; Packaging structure identification attribute models, 661 case study, 673e681 barrier bag-in-box liner requirements, 673t barrier selection, 673e674 curl, 681 flow instabilities in coextrusion, 679 heat seal model, 678e679, 679f input for flow matching model, 680t packing costs, 678 sealant selection, 674, 675t stiffness and LCA model, 674e678, 676t, 677f empirical and statistical models, 661e665 examples, 666e673, 666t package design, 666e671 processing/converting, 671e673 theoretical/fundamental models, 665e666 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 59e60, 260, 633e634 in food packaging, 60t gases in, 60t Modifiers. See also Additives antiblock, 99 antifog, 103 antistats, 101e102 chill roll release, 99e101 clarifying agents, 102e103 compatibilizers, 104 lubricants, 101 nucleating agents, 102e103 opacifiers, 98 pigments, 98 plasticizers, 101 process aids, 102 slip agents, 99 tackifiers, 103 tougheners, 103 Modulus, 122 Moisture vapor barrier, 272, 273f PCTFE, 272e273 Polyolefins, 273 PVDC, 273 Moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR), 252, 268e269, 270t, 421, 528, 529f Moisture-related issues, 470 Moisturization technique for polyamide, 495, 501t Molecular architecture, effect on heat sealing, 203e204 Molecular chain length variations, 371 Molecular factors affecting melt rheology, 139 additives, 140e141 branching, 140 chemical interactions, 140 fillers, 140e141 MW, 139 MWD, 140 Molecular forces, 76 effect of bonding on polymer properties, 77 primary bonds, 76e77 secondary bonds, 77 Molecular weight (MW), 72, 139, 158e159, 204, 272, 402, 443, 465 species, 621 Molecular weight distribution (MWD), 72e74, 129, 131, 140, 140f, 158e159, 195, 281, 412, 443, 471, 479, 487, 545e546, 664 Monolayer and coated barrier systems, 648 Monolayer blown film, 516e519, 516f. See also Air-quench blown film; Coextrusion blown film; Water-quench blown film crystallization and temperature profiles, 517f machine direction velocity profile, 518f MD rate, 518f scale-up rules, 517t Monolayer extrusion, 470 Montmorillonite (MMT), 297 MooneyeRivlin models, 410 Mooning, 246e247 of seals, 191 Morphology, 149, 156e157 Morphology development of polymer blends blend morphology, 167f in blown film, 169 calculating viscosity ratio, 167f compatibilizers in reducing coalescence, 166f HDPEePS blend viscosity ratio, 167f in immiscible blends, 160e169, 160f morphology development, 168f single droplet breakup mechanisms, 166f single screw extrusion solid bed melting model, 168f viscoelastic droplet deformation, 163te165t mPE. See Metallocene polyethylene plastomer (mPE) MSA. See Melt strength additive (MSA) Multi-manifold dies, 37 Multilayer barrier shrink film and bags, 420e421 Multilayer films, 12, 342 engineering principles for, 318 bending stiffness, 323e327 EWF, 343e344 mechanical properties, 318e323 microlayer technology, 344e345 puncture, scratch, and abrasion resistance, 327e335 tear resistance, 335e342 Multilayer nonshrink barrier films, 421e424 Multilayer structures, 450e451 MVTR. See Moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR) MW. See Molecular weight (MW) MWD. See Molecular weight distribution (MWD) MXD6, 86 720 INDEXN “Nano” scratch tests, 317 Nanocomposites, 169e171, 171f, 297e299, 298fe299f Nanoparticles, 171 Near-infrared spectroscopy (Near-IR spectroscopy), 31 Neck-in, 40, 129, 472e478, 473fe474f, 475t, 476f Net stress, 554e555 Net ultimate hot tack (NUHT), 217 Neutral axis, 323e324 Newtonian fluid, 122 Newtonian model, 124 Newtonian plateau, 123e124 Nip, 566 boundary conditions, 566e567 cooling in, 579e581, 584e586 examples, 569e573 extrusion coating and lamination, 41 solidification, 567e569 thermal diffusivity, 566 time in, 567e569 Nitrocellulose-based waterproof coatings, 106 Nitrogen flushed packaging, 260 No-slip condition, 469e471, 489 Nominal stress, 312 Non-Fickian diffusion, 279 Non-Newtonian behavior, 533 Nonmigrating additives, 435 Nonpolar polymers, 198 Nonporous substrates, extrusion coating on, 582. See also Porous substrates cooling in air gap, 584 in nip, 584e586 practical implications, 587e588 stress, 587 TIAG, 583e584 Normal force, 436e438 NO x. See Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) Nucleating agents, 75, 102e103, 457 Numerical simulation, 671 NUHT. See Net ultimate hot tack (NUHT) Nylon, 86, 156e157. See also Polyamide O OBCs. See Olefin block copolymers (OBCs) Odor scavenging, 633e634 Ogden models, 410 OGTR. See Oxygen gas transmission rate (OGTR) OH. See Hydroxyl (OH) Oil barrier, 69. See also Grease barrier resistance, 274 acid copolymers, 275 film thickness, 276e277 ionomers, 275e276 PE, 274e275 PP, 276 type, 277 Oleamide, 100t, 439, 442 Olefin block copolymers (OBCs), 382 Oleophobic chemicals, 107e108 Oleyl palmitamide, 100t, 439 OPA. See Oriented polyamide (OPA) Opacifiers, 98 OPET. See Oriented polyethylene terephthalate (OPET) OPP. See Oriented polypropylene (OPP) Optical microscopy, 292 Optical properties, 453 definitions and measurement, 453 gloss, 458 haze and transparency, 454e458 Microlayer films specialty, 458 OPV. See Oxygen permeation value (OPV) Organic molecule permeation, 269 Organoleptics, 294, 628e633 impartation, 628e630 scalping, 630e633 Orientation, 44, 411e429, 554e559. See also Biaxial orientation affecting factors oriented multilayer films, 420e429 polymer characteristics, 415e416 processing factors, 416e420 double bubble process, 45e46, 45f machine orientation process, 45f MDO process, 46 release stress, 414 tenter frame process, 44f, 45 Oriented multilayer films adhesion, 428e429 base films, 420 laminations, 420 multilayer barrier shrink film and bags, 420e421 multilayer nonshrink barrier films, 421e424 shrink films and labels, 424e426 stretch and cling films, 426e428 Oriented polyamide (OPA), 420 Oriented polyester, 69, 105, 272, 420, 550e553, 569e572, 667, 697. See also Biaxial-oriented polyester Oriented polyethylene terephthalate (OPET), 309 Oriented polypropylene (OPP), 69, 104, 188e189, 697. See also Biaxialoriented polyester Oscillatory flow, 471 OTR. See Oxygen transmission rate (OTR) Oxidation adhesion of LDPE in extrusion coating/lamination, 542e554 food quality, 260 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx), 98 Oxygen barrier, 252 headspace (MAP), 59 scavenging, 293e294 Oxygen gas transmission rate (OGTR), 265 Oxygen permeation value (OPV), 261, 270t, 421, 628 Oxygen transmission rate (OTR), 265, 424, 528, 529fe530f, 620f, 699 P PA. See Polyamide (PA) PA66, 86, 86f PA6I/6T, 86. See also DuPontdSelar PA Package(s), 697 design, 195e197, 666e671 dual compartment pouch concept, 669f hot tack, 197f development models, 666t failures, 617, 628, 641e642 integrity loss, 623e628 environmental stress cracking, 628 peel strength and delamination, 624e628 shipping tests for durability, 317e318 Packaging, 3, 259, 618. See also Environmental effects on package performance; Flexible packaging; Modeling flexible packaging structures Amorpha, 4f assembling package, 15e18 benefits, 7e9 blowpipe, 4 Cellophane advertisement, 5fe6f consumption patterns, 9e11 drivers and trends, 18t five layer flexible packaging structures, 17t flexible packaging value chain, 11f hunter-gatherer societies, 3 INDEX 721Packaging (Continued) line studies, lab results to, 188 LLDPE, 6 machinery, 7 milestones in history, 3f needs along value chain, 13e15 packagingeproduct interactions, 623 active packaging, 633e636 negative consequences, 624f organoleptics, 628e633 package integrity loss, 623e628 PE, 5 plastics materials, 7 structure identification, 657e660 analytical techniques, 660t DSC, 659e660 FTIR, 658e659 microscopy, 657e658, 658f technology, 260e261 three layer flexible packaging structures, 17t trends in context of value chain, 18e19 two-layer flexible packaging structures, 16t value chain, 11e13 Packaging equipment, 51 aseptic packaging, 54 horizontal thermoform fill seal, 53e54, 53f pouch machines, 51e53 retail packaging, 54e56 tray sealer, 54 unit operations, 56e65 uses, 52t Packforsk hot tack tester, 186f test, 187 Packing costs, 678 labor and overhead costs, 641 Paper, 106 paper-based packaging, 4 paper-making process, 364 types in packaging, 107e108 Paperboard, 56, 106 for packaging, 108 Pasteurization, 617, 621 PB-1. See Polybutene-1 (PB-1) PBAT. See Poly(Butylene Adipate co-Terephthalate) PBS. See Polybutylene succinate (PBS) PC. See Polycarbonate (PC) PC-PMMA. See Polycarbonate/ polymethyl methacrylate (PC-PMMA) PC-SAN. See Polycarbonate/styrene acrylonitrile (PC-SAN) PCL. See Poly caprolactone (PCL) PCTFE. See Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) PDI. See Poly-dispersity index (PDI) PE. See Polyethylene (PE) PE film/LDPEeEAA/Al/(EAA/LDPE)/ PE film, 697 PE-g-AA. See Acrylic acid-grafted polyethylene (PE-g-AA) Peak hot tack strength, 248 Pebax, 101e102. See also Antistat additives PECVD. See Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) Peel angle, 237, 354e360 arms, 182 force, 130 rate, 357e359 seals, 230. See also Easy open seal technology; Peelable seal resins speed, 237 Peel strength (PS), 130, 554, 557f, 595, 624e628, 637f affecting factors, 380 end use, 391e392 film structure, 386e388 processing, 388e391 tie resin functionality, 384e386 tie resin matrix and adherend chemistry, 380e384 coating thickness effect on, 573e574 adhesion of LDPE, 574fe575f nonporous substrates, 582e588 peel test analysis, 588e594 Perkins Southwick test method, 575f porous substrates, 576e582 effective contact time, vs., 602f of EMAA to aluminum foil, 638f to EVOH, 605f to EVOH vs. process time for blown film, 596f for coextrusion coating, 597f Peel test(s), 182e183, 183f, 184t, 352e354, 550e553 analysis, 588e590 application of peel strength model, 590e592 experiment, 588e589 fracture mechanics analysis, 354 peel angle, 354e360 peel rate, temperature, and viscoelasticity, 357e359 practical implications, 592e594 thickness, 359e360 viscoelastic energy dissipation, 355 Peelable seal resins, 237e238. See also Easy open seal technology PEI. See Polyethylene imide (PEI) Pellet mixers, 151 Pellet premixing, 151e152, 151f PEN. See Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) Pendant drop method, 361e362 Pendulum impact test, 316 PEO. See Polyethylene oxide (PEO) Permanent additives, 101e102 Permeability, 69 co-efficient, 279 Permeant, 261 Permeation, 261, 278 chemical resistance, 278 through defects, 290e293 factors affecting permeability, 281 environmental effects, 284e290 permeant factors, 282e284 polymer factors, 281e282 thickness, 282 gas barrier, 269e272 grease and oil resistance, 274e277 light barrier, 278 moisture vapor barrier, 272e274 through multilayer films, 280 organic molecules, 277 through perforations, 290, 292e293 through pinholes, 290e292 through polymer films, 278e293 Peroxy radicals (ROO$), 95 Perturbation methods, 487 PET. See Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) PET copolymer (co-PET), 632 PETG. See Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) Pharmaceutical packaging, 259 PHAs. See Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Phase inversion onset, 169 Phenolic antioxidants, 95 Phosphite antioxidant, 95 Physical aging, 636 PIB. See Polyisobutylene (PIB) Pigments, 98, 150 Pinning technology, cast film, 36e37 722 INDEXPLA. See Polylactic acid (PLA) Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), 299e300 Plasticizers, 101 Plate-out. See Die drool Plateau hot tack strength, 217 Plateau initiation temperature, 63, 188 Plug-assisted thermoforming, 409 Pneumatic sealing, 61 PO. See Polyolefin (PO) Polar ethylene copolymers, 205 Polar polymers, 69e70, 470 Polar sealants, 200 Poly caprolactone (PCL), 295e296 Poly-dispersity index (PDI), 74 Poly(Butylene Adipate co-Terephthalate) (PBAT), 94 Polyamide (PA), 44, 86, 95, 156e157, 272, 404, 501, 569, 618e619, 698 Polyamide 6 (PA6), 6e7, 69, 86, 86f, 150, 326e327, 636, 658 crystallizes, 500 PA6/HDPE-g-MAH layer combination, 608e609 Polybutene-1 (PB-1), 85, 150, 231e232 blends, 232e235, 234f, 236f Polybutylene succinate (PBS), 93e94 Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), 90 Polycarbonate (PC), 150, 391, 484, 631 Polycarbonate/polymethyl methacrylate (PC-PMMA), 344 Polycarbonate/styrene acrylonitrile (PC-SAN), 344 Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), 89, 89f, 272 Polydynamics, 671 Polyester, 89e91 Polyethylene (PE), 5, 15, 75, 77e79, 248, 274e275, 318e321, 404, 435, 466, 619, 697 blown film, 454 chain structure differences, 81f chemical structure, 78f ethylene copolymers, 82e83, 82t films, 327e328, 336e340 DuPont static puncture test of multilayer film, 329f fracture mechanics parameters, 336t HDPE, 338f LDPE, 340f plate-like lamellae structure, 337f grafted PE, 84 HDPE, 81e82 LDPE, 79 LLDPE, 79e81 oxidative degradation, 630 Polyethylene imide (PEI), 368 Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), 90, 272 Polyethylene nucleation, 102 Polyethylene oxide (PEO), 295e296 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 15, 54, 69, 132, 150, 184, 188e189, 272, 366, 465, 569, 618 Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), 90, 425e426, 465 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), 92e93 Polyisobutylene (PIB), 427 Polylactic acid (PLA), 92, 93f, 157, 277, 618 biaxially oriented film, 93t thermal properties, 93t Polylactide (PLA). See Polylactic acid (PLA) Polymer blending blending, 149e150 physics, 155e169 processes, 150e155 dispersion of rigid particles, 169e171 morphology, 149 morphology development in blown film, 169 nanocomposites, 169e171, 171f for packaging applications, 149 rheology, 171e172 Polymer processing aids (PPAs), 469e470 Polymer(s), 121, 201, 373e374, 618, 649. See also Biobased polymers; Lidding films blends, 457e458 chains, 411, 412f characterization, 130e131 chemistry, 72 branching and isomerism, 77e78 crystallinity, 74e75 molecular forces, 76e77 MW, 72 MWD, 72e74 polymerization process, 75e76 crystallizes, 439e440 elasticity, 533 films, 515 pellets, 25 polymer-free volume, 447 properties chemistry, 204e205 molecular architecture, 203e204 thermal properties, 203 substrates, 364 surface, 441e442 Polymerization process, 75 condensation, 76 coordination, 76 free radical, 75 Polyolefin (PO), 85e86, 273, 497 antioxidants for stabilizing, 96te97t autooxidative degradation, 95f labels, 426 polyolefin-based shrink labels, 426 polyolefin-based tie resin, 380 slip agents for, 100t Polyolefin plastomer (POP), 700. See also Metallocene polyethylene plastomer Polyoxymethylene (POM), 157 Polypropylene (PP), 69, 84e85, 150, 182, 273, 276, 466, 471, 560e563, 618e619 Polystyrene (PS), 91, 91f, 344e345, 471, 484, 618 Polytrimethyl terephthalate (PTT), 90 Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), 69, 87, 87f, 269e270 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 55, 91, 91f, 282, 412 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), 6e7, 69, 88e89, 88f, 272, 421, 624, 699 POM. See Polyoxymethylene (POM) Porous substrates, extrusion coating onto, 576. See also Nonporous substrates cooling in air gap, 578e579 cooling in nip, 579e581 practical implications, 582 TIAG, 577e578 Post-quench crystallization, 500e501, 500f Potassium ionomers, 101e102 Pouch(es), 51 drop impact, 670 heat sealing, 670 machines, 51 HFFS machine, 51e53 VFFS machine, 51 tear-opening, 670e671 Poultry/fish packaging, 700, 704t Power law model, 578 PP. See Polypropylene (PP) PP-tie-EVOH-tie-PP sheet, 407e409, 408fe409f, 416 PPAs. See Polymer processing aids (PPAs) Pressure, 65, 139, 192, 284, 409, 437, 609, 621 Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs), 238 INDEX 723Pressureevolumeetemperature apparatus (PVT apparatus), 494, 494f PRF. See Puncture resistance factor (PRF) Primal meat packaging, 699, 699t Primary bonds, 76e77 Printability, 70 Printing, 46e47 Process aids, 102 Process time, 542, 577e578 calculating TIAG, 541t initial process time studies, 594e598 master curve, 603e608 sample calculations, 542t Processed meat packaging, 699e700, 701te704t Processing effect on quality curl, 494e508 die drool, 467e470 flow maldistribution and instability issues, 470e493 moisture-related issues, 470 thermal stability, 465e467 Processing parameters, 409 Processing/converting, 671e673, 672t Product contamination, 192e193, 193f Propene, 84. See also Polypropylene PS. See Peel strength (PS); Polystyrene (PS) PSAs. See Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs) PTT. See Polytrimethyl terephthalate (PTT) Puncture resistance, 253, 315, 327 high speed puncture, 315e316 laminates, 328e332 polyethylene films, 327e328 slow puncture, 315 Puncture resistance factor (PRF), 329 Pure surface winders, 31 Purge compounds, 466e467 PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) PVDC. See Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) PVOH. See Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) PVT apparatus. See Pressureevolumee temperature apparatus (PVT apparatus) Pyrolysis, 648 Q Quality, 641 processing effect curl, 494e508 die drool, 467e470 flow maldistribution and instability issues, 470e493 moisture-related issues, 470 thermal stability, 465e467 Quality control tests (QC tests), 109 Quench rate, 500, 502e503, 525e526 R Random copolymer polypropylene (rPP or coPP), 321e322 Rate of elongation. See Rate of strain Rate of strain, 33, 121, 138 Rate of stretching. See Rate of strain Reclosable seal technologies, 238e239. See also Easy-open seal technology Refractive indices (RI), 440, 458 Registration, 57e58 Regression analysis, 664 Regulatory considerations, 110 food packaging regulatory compliance in European Union, 112e113 in United States, 111e112 health-care packaging, 113 Relative humidity (RH), 69, 265, 284e287 effect on oxygen permeability, 69, 265, 271f, 284e287 EVOH, 88f End-use effects, 619e621 Relaxation, 141e144, 141f. See also Stress relaxation factor, 503 Reptation theory, 201 Resins, 272 adhesion, 70 aesthetics, 70 barrier, 69e70 in flexible packaging, 72, 72te73t additives, 94e104 biobased polymers, 91e94 EVOH, 87e88 PCTFE, 89 polyamides, 86 polyester, 89e91 polyethylene, 78e84 polymer chemistry, 72e78 polyolefins, 85e86 polypropylene, 84e85 polystyrene, 91, 91f polyvinyl chloride, 91, 91f PVDC, 88e89 PVOH, 87 tie resins and adhesives, 89 function, 69 material specifications, 108e110 sealing, 70, 248e253, 249te250t structural integrity, 69 typical properties, 70e71, 71t Respiration, 260 Retail packaging, 54 blister packaging, 55 clamshell packaging, 54e55 comparison of types, 56, 57t skin packaging, 55e56, 56f “Retort shock”, 287 Retort sterilization, 287e290, 617, 628, 670 Retortable pouches, 707 Retrogradation, 94 Reverse printing, 16 Reverse-side transfer, 370e371 RH. See Relative humidity (RH) Rheology, 109, 123e124, 671 constitutive equations, 141e144, 141f creep, 141e144, 141f elongational viscosity behavior, 123f extensional flow, 122f factors influencing polymer rheology, 138e141 in flexible packaging, 123e131 measurements, 131e137 modes of strain, 121 normal force, 124f polymer blends, 171e172 relaxation, 141e144, 141f shear flow, 121f stress, 122 units for stress and viscosity, 122t viscosity of materials, 123t shear rate curve, vs., 123f Rheotens test, 137, 403 RI. See Refractive indices (RI) Riboflavin, 260 Rigid packaging, 4 Rigid particle dispersion, 169e171 RO$ . See Alkoxy radicals (RO$) ROO$ . See Peroxy radicals (ROO$) ROOH. See Hydroperoxide (ROOH) Room temperature (RT), 446 Rosin resins, 103 Rotary abrasion test, 317 rPP. See random copolymer polypropylene (rPP or coPP) RT. See Room temperature (RT) Rubber modifier, 103 Rutile titanium dioxide, 278 S Salty snack packaging, 700 SaVE tool. See Sealant Value Estimator tool (SaVE tool) Saxton mixing section, 154f 724 INDEXScalping, 261, 630e633 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 337e338, 368e369, 608e609 Scattering, 486 light, 453 Scavenging odor, 633e634 oxygen, 293e294 rate, 294 Scratch resistance, 316e317, 327, 332e334 Screw design, 534 Scrubbing additives, 466e467 Seal. See also Heat seal; Heat sealing; Peel strength bar design, 62, 192 initiation temperature, 248 strength, 248 packages, 182e183, 183f, 184t types of failures, 242 Sealant, 70, 667 composition, 237 layer, 181 polymers, 700 resin, 194e195 abrasion resistance
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