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| موضوع: كتاب Flat-Rolled Steel Processes - Advanced Technologies الجمعة 17 سبتمبر 2021, 3:02 pm | |
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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Flat-Rolled Steel Processes Advanced Technologies CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Boca Raton London New York Edited by Vladimir B. Ginzburg
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents Preface .vii Editor .ix Contributors .xi SECTION I New Concepts and Modernization of Rolling Mills Chapter 1 A History of Minimills Producing Flat-Rolled Steel 3 John Stubbles Chapter 2 Review of Casting and Rolling Lines with Thin- and Medium-Slab Casters . 15 Vladimir B. Ginzburg Chapter 3 Methodology and Results of Major Hot Strip Mill Modernization Projects 35 Wlodzimierz Boleslaw Filipczyk Chapter 4 Plate Mill Upgrades for High-Strength Products 55 J. F. Evans and P. Sopp Chapter 5 Roughing Mill Work Rolls for Hot Strip Production 63 Michael Windhager and Karl Heinz Ziehenberger Chapter 6 High-Speed Steel Rolls: The Last Frontier in Hot Steel Rolling 71 Alberto Tremea, Angelo Biggi, Massimo Pellizzari, and Alberto Molinari Chapter 7 Tunnel Furnace Roll Options and Energy Considerations 83 Robert J. Echlin, Daniel V. Miller, and Roman I. Pankiw Chapter 8 Descaling of Hot-Rolled Strip . 91 John B. Tiley and Per A. Munther SECTION II Modeling of Flat Rolling Processes Chapter 9 Modeling for Reheat Furnace Practices 99 Shaojie Chen Chapter 10 Improvement of Schedules for Hot Rolling of Thin Wide Strips 115 Eduard Garber, Alexander Traino, and Irina Kozhevnikova Chapter 11 Width Variation Behavior during Hot Rolling 127 Qiulin Yuiv Contents Chapter 12 Parameter Optimization and Uncertainty Quantification in Rolling .141 Arif S. Malik and Ramana V. Grandhi Chapter 13 Simulation for the Dynamic Behavior of Strips Running on Hot Run-Out Tables . 155 Yuji Ohara, Shin-ichiro Aoe, Hiromasa Hayashi, and Kazushige Ishino Chapter 14 Laminar Flow-Cooling of Wide Heavy-Thickness Strip in a Hot Rolling Mill 161 Qiulin Yu Chapter 15 Consideration of Microstructure Evolution in Hot Strip Mill Automation 171 Hans-Ulrich Löffl er, Klaus Weinzierl, and Rüdiger Döll Chapter 16 Novel Mathematical Models for Cold-Rolling Process 179 Eduard Garber, Alexander Traino, and Irina Kozhevnikova Chapter 17 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Cold-Rolling Lubricants and Its Mechanism in Nonconformal Rolling Contacts .191 Ian Burton SECTION III Measurement, Automation, and Process Control Chapter 18 Multivariable Hot Strip Mill Control 209 Gerald Hearns, T. Bilkhu, and Peter Reeve Chapter 19 Finishing Mill Predictive Temperature Control .219 Gerald Hearns, Chris Fryer, and Peter Reeve Chapter 20 Digital Visual Inspection of Coils . 229 Mohammad B. Assar, Larry Romanauski, Matt Kremer, Margaret Krolikowski, Joe Franklin, Mike L. Elliott, and Randy A. Stankie Chapter 21 Yield Improvement through Better Crop Optimization 239 Robert L. Ricciatti Chapter 22 State-of-the-Art, Noncontact Infrared, Laser, and Microwave Intelligent Sensors and Systems for Steel Mills . 245 François Reizine, Bingji Li, and John Nauman Chapter 23 Cold-Rolling Mill Vibration and Its Impact on Productivity and Product Quality 255 Tom Farley Chapter 24 IMPOC: An Online Material Properties Measurement System . 265 Klaus Herrmann and Matthias IrleContents v Chapter 25 Technologies for the Prediction and Control of Microstructural Changes and Mechanical Properties . 271 Kazuhiro Ohara Chapter 26 Metallurgical, Modeling, and Software Engineering Issues in the Further Development of the Steel Mill Level 2 Models . 277 Bingji Li and John Nauman SECTION IV Strip Profile and Flatness Control Chapter 27 Methods of Describing, Assessing, and Infl uencing Shape Deviations in Strips . 287 Gert Mücke, Paul Dieter Pütz, and Frank Gorgels Chapter 28 Local Shape Defects in Cold Rolling: Simulation, Causes Identification, and Reduction . 299 Yuli Liu, Jian Fan, and Mike Levick Chapter 29 Fundamentals of Online Flatness Measuring Devices 319 Fabio Miani and Paolo Patrizi Chapter 30 Recent Developments in Strip-Profile Calculation . 329 Arif S. Malik and Ramana V. Grandhi Chapter 31 Hot Band Profile Irregularities Related to Thermal Contour of Work Rolls 341 Eugene Nikitenko Chapter 32 Analysis of the Transverse Temperature Distribution in the Hot Strip Mill of a Compact Strip Production Plant 349 Jie Zhang, Lili Tian, Paolo Patrizi, and Fabio Miani Chapter 33 Innovations in Shape Measurement and Control for Cold-Rolled Flat Strip Products . 355 Mark E. Zipf Index . 1 A History of Minimills Producing Flat-Rolled Steel John Stubbles CONTENTS 1.1 The First Minimill . 3 1.2 Ken Iverson 4 1.3 Crisis in Big Steel 4 1.4 Breakthrough . 6 1.5 Expansion 6 1.6 Thin Strip Casting . 9 1.7 Iron Unit Supply 9 1.8 The International Scene . 11 1.9 The Future . 12 References 2 Review of Casting and Rolling Lines with Thin- and Medium-Slab Casters Vladimir B. Ginzburg CONTENTS 2.1 Introduction . 15 2.2 Optimum Slab Thickness and the Number of Mill Stands . 16 2.3 Main Components of the CR lines 17 2.4 The CR Lines of the First Group . 20 2.5 The CR Lines of the Second Group 20 2.6 The CR Lines of the Third Group . 26 2.7 The CR Lines of the Fourth Group . 28 2.8 Supercompact CR Lines 30 2.9 Summary . 31 References 3 Methodology and Results of Major Hot Strip Mill Modernization Projects Wlodzimierz Boleslaw Filipczyk CONTENTS 3.1 Introduction . 36 3.2 Upgrades of Electrical and Automation Systems 36 3.2.1 The Scope and Justification . 36 3.2.2 The Features of the Modern Control System 36 3.2.3 Electrical Drives Upgrade Solutions . 36 3.2.4 Sensors and Input/Output Upgrade Solutions 38 3.2.5 Level 1 Equipment Control Upgrade Solutions . 38 3.2.6 Operator’s Interface Upgrade Solutions 39 3.2.7 Supervisory Process Control (Level 2) Upgrade Solutions . 40 3.2.8 The Basic Rules of Electrical and Automation Systems Upgrade . 41 3.2.8.1 Identification of Critical Interfaces and Connectivity Solutions 41 3.2.8.2 Detailed Engineering and Factory System Test 41 3.2.8.3 Process and Control Shadowing on Site . 41 3.2.8.4 Ghost Bar Rolling and Switchover Trials . 42 3.3 China Steel Hot Strip Mill Modernization Project 43 3.3.1 1730-mm Hot Strip Mill #1 History 43 3.3.2 Actual Mill Configuration and Basic Data 43 3.3.3 The Scope of the Mill Modernization . 44 3.3.4 The Downcoilers and Strip Cooling Modernization . 44 3.3.4.1 Mechanical Equipment . 44 3.3.4.2 Electrical Equipment and Control System 45 3.3.5 Slab Sizing Press Installation 47 3.3.5.1 Mechanical Equipment . 47 3.3.5.2 Electrical Equipment and Control System 47 3.3.6 Project Implementation 48 3.3.7 General Project Schedule 48 3.3.7.1 Coilers Area 48 3.3.7.2 Slab Sizing Press . 49 3.3.7.3 Main Shutdown for Both Projects . 50 3.3.8 Mill Start-Up . 50 3.3.9 Project Highlights and Milestones 50 3.3.10 Results 50 3.3.10.1 Cast Slab Width Range . 50 3.3.10.2 Coil Width Performance . 50 3.3.10.3 Material Properties for New Products and CTC Performance . 50 3.3.10.4 Coil Presentation . 51 3.3.10.5 Coil Shape Defects 52 3.3.10.6 Coil Surface Defects . 52 3.3.10.7 Decrease in Mill Delays 52 3.4 Summary . 52 Reference 4 Plate Mill Upgrades for High-Strength Products J. F. Evans and P. Sopp CONTENTS 4.1 Overview 55 4.2 Introduction . 55 4.3 Aspects of the Marketplace for High-Strength Plate . 55 4.3.1 Linepipe . 55 4.3.2 Ship Plate . 56 4.4 Key Features of the Upgraded Mill . 56 4.5 Upgrading of Motors and Drives . 60 4.6 Conclusion . 60 References . 5 Roughing Mill Work Rolls for Hot Strip Production Michael Windhager and Karl Heinz Ziehenberger CONTENTS 5.1 Evolution of Roll Materials 63 5.1.1 Early Developments . 63 5.1.2 From Chrome Steel to High-Speed Steel 64 5.2 Roll Performance . 65 5.2.1 Operational Safety . 66 5.2.2 Residual Stress . 66 5.2.3 Microstructural Integrity . 67 5.2.4 Core Material . 67 5.2.5 Testing of Large-Sized Compound Rolls 68 5.3 Basic Requirements for the Safe and Cost-Efficient Use of Semi-HSS and HSS Rolls 68 5.3.1 Mill Practices . 68 5.3.2 Roll Shop Practices 69 5.4 Conclusions 69 References 6 High-Speed Steel Rolls: The Last Frontier in Hot Steel Rolling Alberto Tremea, Angelo Biggi, Massimo Pellizzari, and Alberto Molinari CONTENTS 6.1 Introduction . 71 6.2 High-Speed Steels for Rolls . 71 6.3 Roll Surface Deterioration . 73 6.4 HSS Behavior in Lab Test 73 6.4.1 Wear Tests 73 6.4.2 Thermal Fatigue Test . 75 6.5 Results and Considerations from the Mills . 76 6.5.1 Roughing Stands in a Continuous HSM 76 6.5.2 Roughing Stands in a Minimill . 77 6.5.3 Reversing Roughing Stands . 78 6.5.4 General Considerations about Roughing Stands . 78 6.5.5 Early Finishing Stands . 78 6.6 Conclusions 80 References 7 Tunnel Furnace Roll Options and Energy Considerations Robert J. Echlin, Daniel V. Miller, and Roman I. Pankiw CONTENTS 7.1 Introduction . 83 7.2 Tunnel Furnace Rolls—Energy Use Overview . 84 7.3 Tunnel Furnace Roll Options . 84 7.4 Water-Cooled Roll Heat Loss 86 7.5 Dry Roll Heat Losses . 87 7.6 Dry Roll Conversion—Natural Gas Savings . 88 7.7 Conclusions 88 Appendix—Heat Transfer Calculations and Heat . 89 References . 8 Descaling of Hot-Rolled Strip John B. Tiley and Per A. Munther CONTENTS 8.1 Introduction . 91 8.2 Formation of Scale . 91 8.3 Impingement Pressure . 92 8.3.1 Sample Calculation for Maximum Entry Temperature to Avoid Critical Tertiary Scale Thickness 94 8.4 Descale Spray Nozzle Interference 94 8.5 System Design . 95 References 9 Modeling for Reheat Furnace Practices Shaojie Chen CONTENTS 9.1 Introduction . 99 9.1.1 Background 99 9.1.2 Categories of Reheat Furnace Modeling . 100 9.2 Slab Target Furnace Exit Temperature Determination .101 9.2.1 Background .101 9.2.2 Mechanical Requirements 101 9.2.3 Metallurgical Requirements 103 9.2.3.1 Dissolution of the Relevant Microalloy Precipitates . 103 9.2.3.2 Avoidance of Excessive Austenite Grain Coarsening . 104 9.2.3.3 Consideration of No-Crystallization Temperature and Finishing Rolling Temperature 104 9.3 Slab Temperature Modeling 105 9.3.1 Calculation Domain . 105 9.3.2 Numerical Formulation 106 9.3.3 Heating Criteria for Skid Marks . 107 9.3.4 Impact of Curved Skid Riders on Skid Marks . 108 9.4 Slab Thermal Stress Modeling 108 9.5 Residence Time Determination 110 9.6 A Case Application of Practice Modeling 110 9.6.1 Background .110 9.6.2 Modeling Package and Calibration .111 9.6.3 Heating Practice Modifications 112 9.6.4 Model Implementation Results .112 9.7 Summary 112 Acknowledgments 113 References . 10 Improvement of Schedules for Hot Rolling of Thin Wide Strips Eduard Garber, Alexander Traino, and Irina Kozhevnikova CONTENTS 10.1 Introduction 115 10.2 Formulation of the Problem and Assumptions .115 10.3 Main Points of the Calculation Procedure 118 10.4 Application of the Calculation Procedure to Analyze Contact Stresses in the Working Stands of Wide-Strip Mills 121 10.5 Calculation of Main Drive Power and Moment for Wide-Strip Mills . 122 10.5.1 Calculation of Rolling Power . 122 10.5.2 Calculation of Moment and Power of Working Stand Main Drive . 122 10.6 Conclusion . 125 References 11 Width Variation Behavior during Hot Rolling Qiulin Yu CONTENTS 11.1 Introduction . 127 11.2 Mechanical Model . 128 11.3 Transverse Distribution of Tensile Stresses of Strip 129 11.4 Measurement of Lateral and Longitudinal Displacements . 130 11.5 Rolling Parameters 133 11.6 Simulation of Width Necking Using FEM 136 11.7 Discussion 137 11.8 Summary . 138 Acknowledgments . 139 References . 12 Parameter Optimization and Uncertainty Quantification in Rolling Arif S. Malik and Ramana V. Grandhi CONTENTS 12.1 Introduction 141 12.2 Optimization .141 12.2.1 Traditional versus Modern Approach to Optimization . 142 12.2.2 Formulation of Mathematical Optimization Statements . 142 12.2.2.1 Design Variables and Cost Function . 142 12.2.2.2 Optimization Constraints 144 12.3 Uncertainty Quantification and Reliability Analysis 144 12.3.1 Random Variables 144 12.3.2 Probability Calculation for Reliability Analysis . 145 12.3.3 The Role of Uncertainty Quantifi cation in Optimization 146 12.4 Application 1: Productivity Optimization on a Four-High Temper Mill 147 12.4.1 Objective for Temper Mill Optimization 147 12.4.2 Formulating an Optimization Problem for Temper Mill Productivity .147 12.4.2.1 Design Variables 147 12.4.2.2 Cost Function 148 12.4.2.3 Constraints 148 12.4.2.4 Side Bounds 148 12.4.3 Results and Discussion for Temper Mill Productivity Optimization 148 12.4.3.1 Optimization Case 1 (Unassigned Roll Crowns) 148 12.4.3.2 Optimization Case 2 (Fixed-Roll Crowns) . 149 12.5 Application 2: Estimating the Probability of Achieving Target Strip Crown and Flatness in Rolling (Uncertainty Quantification) 150 12.5.1 Objective in Determining Strip Flatness Probability 150 12.5.2 Formulating the Strip Flatness Probability Problem . 151 12.5.3 Limit State Functions for Flatness Reliability . 152 12.5.4 Results and Discussion for Strip Flatness Probability . 152 12.5.4.1 Reliabilities of g1 and g2 152 12.5.4.2 System Reliability . 152 12.6 Summary . 153 Acknowledgments . 153 References . 13 Simulation for the Dynamic Behavior of Strips Running on Hot Run-Out Tables Yuji Ohara, Shin-ichiro Aoe, Hiromasa Hayashi, and Kazushige Ishino CONTENTS 13.1 Introduction . 155 13.2 Theory 156 13.2.1 Theoretical Derivation of Maximum Stable Threading Speed on ROT . 156 13.2.1.1 Steady-State Equation of Motion for Strip Traveling on ROT . 156 13.2.2 Theorem of Equivalence Between Dynamic Characteristics of Strip on ROT and Buckling Phenomenon (Theory of Maximum Stable Threading Speed for ROT) . 156 13.3 Experiments . 157 13.3.1 Experimental Verification of Maximum Stable Threading Speed Using Run-Out Simulator 157 13.3.1.1 Run-Out Simulator and Similarity Law . 157 13.3.1.2 Experimental Conditions and Experimental Results 157 13.4 Numerical Simulation 158 13.4.1 ROT Strip Travel Simulation . 158 13.5 Discussion 159 13.5.1 Current Status of Maximum Threading Speed at Actual ROT and Discussion . 159 13.6 Conclusions 159 References 14 Laminar Flow-Cooling of Wide Heavy-Thickness Strip in a Hot Rolling Mill Qiulin Yu CONTENTS 14.1 Introduction 161 14.2 Background 162 14.3 Mill Layout and Equipment 162 14.3.1 Laminar Cooling System 162 14.3.2 Modification of Hardware . 163 14.4 Formulation of Energy Balance . 163 14.4.1 Increment of Internal Energy 164 14.4.2 Heat of Phase Transformation . 164 14.4.3 Heat Loss by Radiation . 164 14.4.4 Heat Loss by Convection . 165 14.5 Temperature Model 165 14.5.1 Two-Dimensional Analytical Model . 165 14.5.2 Boundary Conditions 165 14.5.3 Solutions 165 14.6 Mechanical Properties . 166 14.7 Critical Temperature Differences of Strip Canoeing . 166 14.8 Laminar Flow Distribution 167 14.8.1 Crossbow at Cut-to-Length Line . 167 14.8.2 Strip Dimension versus Crossbow . 168 14.8.3 Ratio of Bottom Flow to Top Flow . 168 14.8.4 Yield Strength 169 14.9 Examination of Heat Removal . 169 14.10 Discussion .170 14.11 Summary 170 Acknowledgments 170 References 15 Consideration of Microstructure Evolution in Hot Strip Mill Automation Hans-Ulrich Löffler, Klaus Weinzierl, and Rüdiger Döll CONTENTS 15.1 Introduction 171 15.2 A Brief History of Microstructure Modeling and Cooling Section Control .171 15.3 Microstructure Model 172 15.4 From Microstructure to Material Properties 174 15.5 Model Predictive Control to Keep Material Properties Constant over Strip Length .175 15.6 Different Strategies for Different Steel Grades 176 15.7 Conclusions 177 References . 16 Novel Mathematical Models for Cold-Rolling Process Eduard Garber, Alexander Traino, and Irina Kozhevnikova CONTENTS 16.1 Introduction . 179 16.2 New Cold-Rolling Theory Basics 180 16.3 Practical Implementation of New Theory for Cold-Rolling Technology Improvement 188 16.4 Conclusion . 189 References . 17 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of ColdRolling Lubricants and Its Mechanism in Nonconformal Rolling Contacts Ian Burton CONTENTS 17.1 Introduction 191 17.2 Discussion 192 17.2.1 Tribocontact Geometries in Cold Rolling and Their Influence upon Film Thickness h . 192 17.2.2 Cold-Rolling Lubricants 193 17.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Interferometry 193 17.2.4 Determination of Film Thickness h of Fully Formulated Cold-Rolling Lubricants . 195 17.2.5 Nonlinear Film Growth . 198 17.2.6 Modeling the Boundary and Elastohydrodynamic Films . 199 17.2.7 Pressure–Viscosity Coefficients α . 200 17.2.8 Mill Validation Testing 202 17.3 Conclusion . 204 17.4 Experimental Protocol . 204 17.4.1 Determination of Film Thickness h by Elastohydrodynamic Interferometry . 204 17.4.2 Determination of the Pressure–Viscosity Coefficient α . 204 17.4.3 Determination of the Temperature–Viscosity Coefficient β 204 Acknowledgments . 205 References 18 Multivariable Hot Strip Mill Control Gerald Hearns, T. Bilkhu, and Peter Reeve CONTENTS 18.1 Introduction . 209 18.2 System Modeling 210 18.3 Conventional Gauge and Mass Flow Control 213 18.4 Multivariable Controller Design 213 18.4.1 State Feedback . 213 18.4.2 State Estimation 214 18.4.3 Performance Optimization 215 18.5 Mill Trials 215 18.6 Conclusions .217 References . 19 Finishing Mill Predictive Temperature Control Gerald Hearns, Chris Fryer, and Peter Reeve CONTENTS 19.1 Introduction 219 19.2 Setup Calculations 219 19.3 Dynamic Control . 220 19.4 Finishing Mill Interactions 220 19.5 Finishing Mill Predictive Temperature Control 221 19.5.1 Finishing Mill Temperature Modeling 222 19.5.2 Temperature State Estimation . 223 19.5.3 The Control Algorithm 224 19.5.4 Application of the Control Algorithm . 225 19.5.5 Velocity Feedforward from the Setup . 227 19.6 Temperature Control Results . 227 References . 20 Digital Visual Inspection of Coils Mohammad B. Assar, Larry Romanauski, Matt Kremer, Margaret Krolikowski, Joe Franklin, Mike L. Elliott, and Randy A. Stankie CONTENTS 20.1 Introduction . 229 20.2 Objectives 230 20.3 Technical Description 230 20.4 Solution 231 20.5 Applications and Results . 233 20.5.1 Temper Mill System 233 20.5.2 Pickle Line System 234 20.5.3 Weld-Tracking Analysis and Verification 236 20.5.4 Tandem Mill System 236 20.6 Conclusions 238 References 21 Yield Improvement through Better Crop Optimization Robert L. Ricciatti CONTENTS 21.1 Introduction . 239 21.2 Crop Optimization . 239 21.2.1 Imaging 241 21.2.2 Cut Line Determination . 241 21.2.3 Tracking . 241 21.2.4 Shear Control . 242 21.2.5 How Far to Go? 242 21.3 Laser Velocimeters 242 21.4 Summary . 243 References . 22 State-of-the-Art, Noncontact Infrared, Laser, and Microwave Intelligent Sensors and Systems for Steel Mills François Reizine, Bingji Li, and John Nauman CONTENTS 22.1 Current Sensor Technologies . 245 22.2 Principles of Selected Applications .246 22.2.1 Continuous Caster Optimization of Cut 246 22.2.2 Width Measurement of Slab 248 22.2.2.1 Strip Centering/Camber and Width Measurement . 248 22.3 Sensor Systems 248 22.3.1 Systems Developments 248 22.3.2 Systems Techniques . 251 22.3.3 System Examples in Slab Casting . 252 22.3.4 System Examples in Hot Rolling . 253 22.3.5 System Examples in Finishing 23 Cold-Rolling Mill Vibration and Its Impact on Productivity and Product Quality Tom Farley CONTENTS 23.1 Introduction . 255 23.2 Background Vibration Theory . 255 23.3 Modeling Natural Resonant Vibrations of a Rolling Mill Stand 256 23.4 Low-Frequency Forced Vibrations 256 23.5 Torsional Chatter Vibration . 256 23.6 Third Octave Gauge Chatter Vibration . 257 23.7 Fifth Octave Chatter (Roll and Strip Chatter Marks) 259 23.8 Summary . 262 References 24 IMPOC: An Online Material Properties Measurement System Klaus Herrmann and Matthias Irle CONTENTS 24.1 Introduction . 265 24.2 Principle of Operation . 265 24.3 System Components and System Operation 265 24.3.1 IMPOC Sensor . 266 24.3.2 IMPOC Data Processing Unit . 266 24.4 Data Modeling and System Performance . 266 24.5 Technical and Economic Benefits . 268 24.5.1 Process Optimization . 268 24.5.2 Reduction of Coil Logistics Expenses 268 24.5.3 Reduction of Destructive Testing Costs . 268 24.5.4 Skin Pass Mill Control 269 24.6 Summary 269 References . 25 Technologies for the Prediction and Control of Microstructural Changes and Mechanical Properties Kazuhiro Ohara CONTENTS 25.1 The Need for Prediction and Control of Microstructural Changes and Mechanical Properties . 271 25.2 Overall Structure of the Calculation for Microstructural Changes and Mechanical Properties . 271 25.3 Details of the Models for Predicting Microstructural Changes and Mechanical Properties 272 25.3.1 Grain Growth during Slab Reheating 272 25.3.2 Hot Deformation Model . 272 25.3.2.1 Recovery . 273 25.3.2.2 Recrystallization . 273 25.3.2.3 Grain Growth after Deformation 273 25.3.3 Transformation Model . 273 25.4 Mechanical Properties Prediction Model (Structure–Mechanical Properties Relationship) 274 25.5 Trends in the Development of Material Properties Models . 274 25.5.1 Material Properties Model for Ultra-Low-Carbon Steel . 275 25.5.2 Material Properties Model for Ultra-Fine-Grain Microstructure Steel 275 25.5.3 Mesoscopic Model . 275 References 26 Metallurgical, Modeling, and Software Engineering Issues in the Further Development of the Steel Mill Level 2 Models Bingji Li and John Nauman CONTENTS 26.1 Level 2 Model 277 26.1.1 Force and Flow Stress 277 26.1.2 Force Learning 278 26.2 Metallurgical Issues in Level 2 278 26.2.1 Retained Strain 278 26.2.2 Rolling in the Two-Phase Region 279 26.2.3 Metallurgical Aspect of the Flow Stress . 279 26.2.4 Others . 279 26.3 Modeling Issues in Level 2 279 26.3.1 Limitation of the Adaptive Learning . 279 26.3.2 The Guided Two-Parameter Learning (FIT2G) 280 26.3.3 Flow Stress Valid Range 281 26.3.4 Temperature-Dependent Properties . 281 26.3.5 Intelligent Learning . 281 26.4 Software Engineering Issues in Level 2 281 26.4.1 System Architecture Based on the Interactive Relationship of Mill Process Models . 281 26.4.2 Web-Based Level 2 Systems 282 26.4.3 Others . 282 26.5 Next-Generation Level 2 Systems . 283 References 27 Methods of Describing, Assessing, and Influencing Shape Deviations in Strips Gert Mücke, Paul Dieter Pütz, and Frank Gorgels CONTENTS 27.1 Shape Deviations in Strips . 287 27.1.1 Flatness Deviations 288 27.1.2 Straightness Deviations . 290 27.2 Measurement of Strip Flatness under Strip Tension 290 27.2.1 Methods for Measuring Strip Shape: Strip Flatness 291 27.2.1.1 Radial Force Measuring Systems . 291 27.2.1.2 Strip Displacement Measuring Systems . 291 27.2.1.3 Strip Waviness Measuring Systems 292 27.2.1.4 Strip Permeability Measurement 293 27.2.2 Requirements on Flatness-Measuring Systems . 293 27.2.2.1 Measuring Accuracy . 293 27.2.2.2 Influence of Measuring Zone Width . 293 27.2.2.3 Influence of Temperature Deviations across the Strip Width . 293 27.3 Quantitative Evaluation of Flatness Deviations, with Specific Regard to Waviness . 294 27.4 Strip Flatness Control Methods . 297 27.4.1 Strip Flatness Control Inside the Rolling Mill 297 27.4.2 Strip Flatness Control Outside the Rolling Stand . 297 27.4.2.1 Conventional Strip Leveling Methods 297 27.4.2.2 New Strip Leveling Process 298 References 28 Local Shape Defects in Cold Rolling: Simulation, Causes Identification, and Reduction Yuli Liu, Jian Fan, and Mike Levick CONTENTS 28.1 Introduction . 299 28.2 Strain Rate–Based Strip 3D Deformation Model 300 28.2.1 Analysis Model of Deformation Zone .300 28.2.2 Strip Thickness Distribution in the Roll Bite 300 28.2.3 Strain Rate and Velocity Field Model .300 28.2.4 Yield Criterion and Plastic Flow Equation 301 28.2.5 Surface Friction Model 301 28.2.6 Longitudinal Equilibrium Equation 301 28.2.7 Entry and Exit Tension Stress Model 302 28.2.8 Transverse Equilibrium Equation 302 28.2.9 Numerical Scheme . 302 28.3 Work-Roll Thermal Crown Model . 303 28.4 Roll Stack Deformation Model 303 28.4.1 Roll Separating Forces . 303 28.4.2 Roll Equilibrium Equations . 303 28.4.3 Roll Deflection Equations 303 28.4.4 Roll Deformation Compatibility Equation 304 28.4.5 Roll Gap Profile . 304 28.4.6 Calculation Procedure . 304 28.5 Stresses Unloading Model . 305 28.6 Flowchart of the Main Program 305 28.7 Model Tuning and Verification 305 28.8 User Interface 306 28.9 Base Case for Local Shape Defects Simulation 306 28.10 Effects of Entry Strip Profile Ridge 308 28.11 Effect of Local Yield Stress Drop 311 28.12 Roll-Cooling Nozzle Clog or Work-Roll Crown Ridge Effect .314 28.13 Identification of Causes and Reduction of Local Shape Defects 316 Acknowledgments 316 References 29 Fundamentals of Online Flatness Measuring Devices Fabio Miani and Paolo Patrizi CONTENTS 29.1 Introduction 319 29.2 Causes of Flatness Deviation . 320 29.3 Contact Flatness Measuring Devices 320 29.3.1 Contact Shapemeter for Cold Strip Mills 320 29.3.1.1 Strengths . 321 29.3.1.2 Weaknesses . 321 29.3.2 Contact Shapemeter for Hot Strip Mills 321 29.3.2.1 Strengths . 321 29.3.2.2 Weaknesses . 321 29.3.3 Shapemeter–Looper . 322 29.3.3.1 Strengths . 322 29.3.3.2 Weaknesses . 322 29.3.4 Contactless Flatness Measuring Devices 322 29.3.5 Linear Laser Method . 323 29.3.5.1 Strengths . 324 29.3.5.2 Weaknesses . 324 29.3.6 Laser Points Method 324 29.3.6.1 Strengths . 325 29.3.6.2 Weaknesses . 325 29.3.7 Fringe Method . 325 29.3.7.1 Strengths . 326 29.3.7.2 Weaknesses . 326 29.3.8 Moirè’s Topography Method 326 29.3.8.1 Strengths . 327 29.3.8.2 Weaknesses . 327 29.3.9 Contactless Nonoptical Shapemeter 327 29.3.9.1 Strengths . 327 29.3.9.2 Weaknesses . 327 29.4 Conclusions 327 References 30 Recent Developments in Strip-Profile Calculation Arif S. Malik and Ramana V. Grandhi CONTENTS 30.1 Introduction . 329 30.2 Strip Profile and Crown . 329 30.3 Strip Flatness or Shape 330 30.4 Strip-Profile Prediction and Control Models . 330 30.4.1 Tasks Requiring Accurate and Rapid Strip-Profile Calculation .331 30.4.1.1 A New Simplifi ed Mixed Finite Element Method for Strip-Profile Calculation .331 30.4.2 Strip-Profile Model Development 332 30.4.2.1 Modeling Strip-Profile Control Devices . 334 30.4.2.2 Strip-Profile Calculation . 334 30.5 Strip-Profile Model Applications . 335 30.5.1 Four-High Cold Plate Mill . 335 30.5.1.1 Comparison with Large-Scale Finite Element Analysis . 336 30.5.2 20-High Sendzimir Mill 337 30.6 Summary . 339 Acknowledgments . 339 References 31 Hot Band Profile Irregularities Related to Thermal Contour of Work Rolls* Eugene Nikitenko CONTENTS 31.1 Introduction . 341 31.2 Roll Cooling Pattern 341 31.3 Improving Flatness and Crown Performance 342 31.4 Impact of Rolling Strip with Offset from Mill Centerline 344 31.5 Conclusions 346 References 32 Analysis of the Transverse Temperature Distribution in the Hot Strip Mill of a Compact Strip Production Plant Jie Zhang, Lili Tian, Paolo Patrizi, and Fabio Miani CONTENTS 32.1 Hot-Rolled Strip Transverse Temperature Distribution: State of the Art 349 32.2 Experimental Setup . 350 32.2.1 Experimental Devices 350 32.2.2 Measured Data . 350 32.3 Experimental Results 351 32.3.1 Temperature Distribution in the Strip Central Area 352 32.3.2 Temperature Distribution in the Strip Edge Regions 352 32.3.3 The Relationship Between Transverse Temperature Distribution and Strip Width 352 32.3.4 The Relationship Between Transverse Temperature Distribution and Strip Temperature 353 32.4 Conclusion . 353 References . 33 Innovations in Shape Measurement and Control for Cold-Rolled Flat Strip Products Mark E. Zipf CONTENTS 33.1 Introduction . 355 33.2 Innovations in Shape Measurement Technologies . 358 33.2.1 Noncontact Shape Measurement . 358 33.2.2 Seamless Roll Technologies 359 33.3 New Methods in Mill Modeling and Simulation . 360 33.4 Advancements in Shape Control Technologies . 362 33.4.1 Singular Value Decomposition Method . 363 33.4.2 Model Predictive Control Methods . 364 33.5 Conclusion . 364 References x368 Index Control systems downcoilers, 45 features of, 36 slab sizing press installation, 47 Convection heat flux, 106 Conventional gauge control, 213 Conventional looper angle, 216 Cooling systems accelerated, 56–57 water, 18–19 Cooling temperature control, 172 Cost function, 142–143, 148 Coupled Pickle-Line and Cold Mill (CPCM), 303 Crawfordsville plant, 6 Creep-strength alloys, 83, 85, 89 CR lines, See Casting and rolling lines Crop optimization system, 239–242 cut line determination, 241 imaging, 241 shear control, 242 tracking, 241–242 Cropping system, 239 Crossbow, 161, 166, 290 at cut-to-length line, 167 elimination, 167 vs. strip dimension, 168 Cross-strip temperature variations, 293 CSC, See China Steel Corporation CSP, See Compact Steel Plant; Compact strip production CTC model, See Coiling temperature control model Cumulative distribution function, 151 Cumulative frequency, 295 Curved skid riders and boundary conditions, 107 impact on skid marks, 108 temperature comparison between straight and, 108 CVP, See Carbide volume percentage D Data-acquisition systems, 262 Database management system (DBMS), 281 Data modeling, 266 Datapaq’s Furnace Tracker, 112 Data processing unit (DPU), 266 Deflection roll, 321 Deformation model 3D, 300–302, 305 roll stack, 303 calculation procedure, 304 Deformation zone, 180, 300 analysis model of, 300 calculation formulas for rolling values, 123 elastic-plastic model of, 181, 187 elastic region of, basic expressions for, 118 plastic region of, basic expressions for, 119 stick zone in, 115–116 tangential stresses in, 116–117 versions of structural schemes for, 187–188 working stands, structural parameters of, 122 Descalers of CR lines, 18 Descale systems, 91–95 design, 95 header stations, 95 impingement pressure, 92–94 spray nozzle interference, 94–95 Digital front ends (DFEs), See Firing circuits replacement Direct current (DC) drives, 37 Direct strip production complex (DSPC), 23 Doppler principle, 243 Double-stand Steckel mill, 29 Downcoilers, 17–18, 44–45 Dry rolls, 84 conversion, 88 heat losses for, 87–88 DSPC, See Direct strip production complex Dual-phase steel, 171 Dynamically linked library (DLL), 283 Dynamic control, 220 E EAF, See Electric arc furnace Eccentric bottom tapholes (EBTs), 5 Eccentricity analysis, 253 Eddy current sensors, 359 EHD interferometry, See Elastohydrodynamic interferometry EHD lubrication, See Elastohydrodynamic lubrication Elastic deformation of work rolls, 193 Elastic foundation elements, 332 Elastic instability phenomenon, 156 Elastic-plastic model, 187 Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) interferometry, 193–195 Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication, 191–205 Elastoplastic deformation zone, contact stresses in, 181 Electrical drives upgrade solutions, 36–38 Electrical equipment, 45–48 Electrical motors, 37 Electrical systems upgrades, 36–43 Electric arc furnace (EAF), 5 flat-rolled minimills, cumulative production of, 7 reduction in chemical and electrical energy in, 13 Energy balance formulation, 163 Entry tension stress model, 302, 310, 313 Equipment control upgrade solutions, 38–39 Exit tension stress model, 302, 311, 313 Expert systems, 251–252, 283 F Fabrication technology, developments in, 56 Factor-of-safety design, 144 Factory system test, 41 FDM, See Finite differences method FEM, See Finite element method Ferrite-pearlite-bainite steels, 274 Ferrite–pearlite steels, 274 Ferritic rolling, 26 Ferromagnetic core, 266 Ferrous martensitic matrix, 71 Fifth octave chatter, 259–262 Finishing mills of CR lines, 18 design parameters of, 21–22, 28 exit temperature of, 226 interactions in, 220–221 predictive temperature control in, 221–227 temperature modeling for, 222–223 velocity feedforward in, 227 Finishing rolling temperature, 104–105 Finite differences method (FDM), 282, 349 Finite-element computer model, 256 Finite element method (FEM), 349, 361–362 for computing mill deflection, 334 for 20-High Sendzimir mill, 337–339 for strip profile calculation, 331–332 width necking simulation using, 136–137 Firecracks, 75, 78 Firing circuits replacement, 37 FIT2G, See Guided two-parameter learning Flatness, 355 control, 19 measuring devices, 319–328 of rolled steel, 277 Flatness deviations, 287–290 bowshaped faults, 287, 289 causes of, 320 cumulative frequency, 295 defect patterns, 287 strip waviness, 287–288 Flatness index, 295 Flatness reliability, 151–152 Flat-rolled steel minimills, 3–13 Flat-rolled products, 253 Flow stress, 277 learning, fitting mechanisms for, 278 metallurgical aspect of, 279 valid range, 281 FLUENT, 100 Four-high cold plate mill FEA model of, 336 geometry parameters for, 335 model parameters for, 335 simplified mixed FEM of, 332, 335–337 Four-high mill force and moment calculation scheme for, 123 quarter symmetric model of, 333 Four-high temper mill, 147–150 Fourier indexes, 166 Frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW), 246 Friction law, 115–116 Friction stress model, 117 Fringe method stereoscopic view, 325 strengths and weaknesses, 326 Furnace design models, 100 Furnace dynamic control models, 100–101 Furnace heating practice models, 100–113 case application of, 110–112 implementation results, 112–113 G Gauge control, 209 Ghost bar rolling, 42–43 Gibbs’ free enthalpy, 173–174 Global stiffness matrix, 332 Grain coarsening temperature, 104 Grain growth, 104 after deformation, 273 during slab reheating, 272 Grain refinement mechanisms, 56 Guided two-parameter learning (FIT2G), 280 H Hall–Petch equation, 174 Hasofer–Lind method, 152 Heat checks, 75 Heat conductivity, 165Index 369 Heat conservation devices of CR lines, 17–19 Heat diffusion, 163 Heating curves fast and slow, 108–110, 112 of slab, 108–110, 112 Heat loss by convection, 165 by radiation, 164 Heat removal, 169–170 Heat-resisting alloys, 87 Heat transfer, 106, 161, 165, 253 Hertz–Belyaev formula, 123, 185 Hertz formula, 182 High carbon steel grades, 173 High chromium irons, 71, 78 High chromium steel, 71, 76–78 High-speed steel (HSS) rolls, 64–65, 71–72 applications of, 76–78 behavior in lab test, 73–76 considerations of, 78 results of in continuous roughing stands, 76–77 in early finishing stands, 78–79 in reversing roughing stands, 78–79 safe and cost-efficient use of, 68–69 wear and damaging of, 78 High strength low alloy (HSLA) steel, 100, 104, 161, 169, 279 High-strength plate, aspects of marketplace for, 55–56 HIsmelt direct iron process, 11 HMD, See Hot metal detector HMI systems, See Human-machine interface systems Hooke’s law, 130 Hot band profile irregularities, 341–347 Hot band ridges, 316 Hot deformation model, 272–273 Hot metal detector (HMD), 245, 247 Hot rolling, 253–254 mode of St1PS strip, 124–125 plastic deformation in, 130 of thin wide strips, 115–125 width variation behavior during, 127–139 Hot rolling mills, 24 arrangements of, 29 Hot strip mill (HSM), 16, 239, 242 basic mill data, 44 modernization projects, 43–52 configuration, 43 contact shapemeters for, 321–322 CSC HSM 1, configuration, 44 roughing stands in continuous, 76–77 transverse temperature distribution of, 349–353 upgrades of, 43 Hot Strip Mill Model (HSMM), 102 Hot-tandem rolling, 272 HSLA, See High strength low alloy HSM, See Hot strip mill HSS rolls, See High-speed steel rolls Human–machine interface (HMI) systems, 39, 42 Hydraulic oscillators, 252 Hysteresis, nonlinear ferromagnetic, 266 I Impingement pressure, 92–94 IMPOC (Impulse Magnetic Process Online Controller), 265–269 data modeling and system performance, 266–267 data processing unit, 266 operating principles, 265 sensor, 266 system components and system operation, 265–266 technical and economic benefits, 268–269 Impulse Magnetic Process Online Controller, See IMPOC Induction welding, 31 Infrared sensors, 245, 248, 253 software setup for, 251 Inline Strip Production (ISP) plant, 27 Integrated system, 42 Intelligent learning, 281 Intermediate variables, 220 Internal energy, 164 International Association of Steckel Mill Operators (IASMO), 128 Iron, strength of, 271 Iron-base castings, solidification of, 67 Iron oxide (scale) layer, 91–92 Iron unit supply, 9–11 Irvine and Pickering formula, 274 Irvine’s equations, 103 Iverson, Ken, 4 J JFE Steel Corporation, 159 Johnson–Mehl–Avrami approach, 173 K Kalman filter, 214 Kelk Corporation (KELK), 239, 241–243 L Laminar cooling systems, 45–46 Laminar flow bottom flow to top fl ow ratio, 168 distribution, 167–169 heat removal by, 169–170 yield strength, 169 Laminar flow-cooling system, 161 composed of, 162 hardware modification, 163 layout of, 162 Laser-based sensors, 245 Laser Doppler velocimeters (LVDs), 243, 245–248 Lasermeters, 246–247; See also Triangulation lasermeters Laser points method, 324–325 Laser velocimeters, 241–242 Laser velocity, analysis of, 253 Ledeburitic steel, 71 Level 2 model, 277–283 AI learning techniques, 283 force and flow stress, 277–278 force learning, 278 issues in metallurgical, 278–279 modeling, 279–281 software engineering, 281 next-generation, 283 rolling in two-phase region, 279 temperature-dependent properties, 281 web-based, 282 Light cutting method, 325 Light section method, 325 Limit state functions, 152 Linear design model, 212 Linear dynamic model of looper and stand, 211 Linear laser method, 323–324 Linear temperature model, 224 Linepipe, 55–56 Local shape defects, 299, 314 identification of causes, 316 reduction of, 316 simulation, 306 Longitudinal equilibrium equation, 301 Looper angle, 212, 215 control of, 213 multivariable, 216 Low-frequency forced vibrations, 256 Lubricants dynamic viscosity, 202 film, 195–198 Lubrication mode, 192 LVDs, See Laser Doppler velocimeters M MAB-3000, 249 Mandrel power, 44 Martensitic products, 51 Mass flow control, 213, 215 Material properties models trends in development of, 274–275 for ultrafine-grain microstructure steel, 275 for ultra-low-carbon steel, 275 Mathematical optimization, 142 cost function, 142–143 design variables, 142–143 MBPC, See Model-based predicted controller Mechanical equipment, 44–45, 47 Mechanical properties prediction model, 274 Medium-slab casters, 15–32 Melt shop, design parameters of, 21 Mesoscopic model, 275 Microalloying, 56, 172 Microalloy precipitates, dissolution of, 103–104, 107 Microporosities, 67 Microstructure modeling, 172–174 and cooling section control, 171–172 evolution, 172 Microstructure Monitor system, 176 Microstructure simulation, 283 Microwave sensors, 245 Mill modeling and simulation, 357 analytic models, 361 empirical/heuristic models, 361 methods in, 360–362 pass scheduling, 362 process models, interactive relationship of, 281 setup calculations, 219–220 shape control actuators, 360–361 shape target selection, 362 Mill stands, 16–17 Mill wrecks, 229, 234, 236 Minimills, history of, 3–13 Minimill sector, restructuring of, 12 Model-based predicted controller (MBPC), 219, 224 Model predictive control (MPC), 172, 175–176 structure of, 177 techniques, 364370 Index Modern rolling practice, 278 Moirè’s topography method, 326–327 Mono-cast rolls, 63–64 Monte–Carlo method, 275 Monte–Carlo simulations, 145–146, 275 MO-RE-2150, 85, 88 MPC, See Model predictive control MULPIC (Multi-purpose interrupted cooling) system, 56–58 Multibody dynamics simulation, 158 Multivariable control gauge change, 216 Multivariable controller design, 213–217 advantage of, 215, 217 application of, 209 of gauge and looper angle, 210 performance optimization, 215 state estimation and feedback, 214 statistical performance analysis of, 217 Multivariable disturbance estimates, 216 Multivariable hot strip mill control, 209–218 Multivariable looper angle, 216 Multivariable shape control techniques, 360, 362 N Neural-network models, 251 Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission, 100 No-crystallization temperature, 104–105 Nonconformal rolling contacts, elastohydrodynamic lubrication in, 191–205 Noncontact optical systems, 254 Noncontact sensors, 245, 251–254 Noncontact shape measurement, 357–359 Nonlinear ferromagnetic hysteresis, 266 Nonlinear film growth, 198–199 Normal distribution, 145 Nova Hut steel, design parameters of CR line at, 30 Nucleophilic association/dissociation mechanism, 198 Nucor Steel, 4, 6–13 plants, 16, 19–21 O Octave gauge chatter vibrations fifth, 259–262 third, 257–259 Operator’s interface upgrade solutions, 39–40 Optical inspection systems, 254 Optical triangulation, 322–323 Optimization, 141–142, 268 caster, 246–248 constraints, 144 crop, See Crop optimization system formulations, 142 of steel-rolling process, 142 of temper mill productivity, 147 traditional vs. modern approach, 142–143 uncertainty quantification role in, 146 Optimum slab thickness of CSP, 16–17 Oxidation of iron, 91 Oxide scale descaling of, 93 formation of, 91–92 impact pressures to, 94 P Pass schedule set-up models, 330–331 PDF, See Probability density functions Pearlitic nodular core material, 67 Phase-field method, 275 Phase transformation, heat of, 164 Phenomenological models, 266 PHOENICS, 100 Pickle line system, 234–236 camera setup, 232, 235 defect spreadsheet, 236 PID controller, See Proportional integral derivative controller Piezoviscous Effect, 196, 200, 204 Pincher defect, 52 Plastic deformation in hot rolling, 130 of strip, 135–136 Plastic flow equation, yield criterion and, 301 Plastic strain, 138 Plate mill upgrades, 55–60 Plate-Steckel configuration, 60 PLCs, See Programmable logic controllers Prediction model, 271 mechanical properties, 274 microstructure and material properties, 272 Pressure-viscosity coefficients, 200–202 determination of, 204–205 for lubricants and esters, 202 Pre-temper mill stain, 233 Probability density functions (PDF), 145–146 Process models, 42, 281–283 Process shadowing, 41–42 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), 230 Proportional integral derivative (PID) controller, 213, 215 Pulse radar sensors, 246 Pusher-type furnaces, 100 Pyrocracking factor, 75 Pyrometers, 245, 253, 350 R Radial force measuring systems, 291 Radiation heat flux, 106 Random variables, 144–145 capacity, 145–146 demand, 145–146 distributions, 145 Raw steel production, U.S., 5 RBDO, See Reliability-based design optimization Recrystallization, 273 Reheat furnaces, 99–100 computer modeling, 100–101, 271; See also specifi c models discharge temperature mechanical requirements, 101–102 metallurgical requirements, 103–105 exit temperature, 101–102 slab temperature at exit from, 101–105 Reheat tunnel furnace of CR lines, 17 design parameters of, 21 Reliability analysis probability calculation for, 145–146 uncertainty quantification and, 144 Reliability-based design optimization (RBDO), 141, 146, 150 Reliability index, 151 Residence time determination, 110 Residual austenite content, 171 Residual stresses of strip, 129–130, 135–136, 305, 311, 314 Retained strain, 278–279 Reversing finishing mills, See Steckel mills Riccati equation, 214 RM setup (RSU) functionality, 47 Roll bite, 128 pressure distribution in, 129 strip-thickness profiles in, 300 Roll deflection equations, 303 Roll deformation compatibility equation, 304 Roll elements coatings, 322 cooling nozzles, 314 core material, 67–68 crowns, 148 Roll equilibrium equations, 303 Roll gap model, 256 Roll gap profile, 304–305 Roll pitch, 157 Rolling force, 120 learning, 278 reduction in, 202–204 Rolling friction, 122–124, 185, 187 Rolling mills with automatic gauge and width control, 19 with flatness control, 19 operation of, 49–50 with strip profile, 19 Rolling parameters, 133–136 Rolling strip with offset from mill centerline, 344–346 Rolling temperature, 125 Roll separating forces, 303 Roll stack deformation model, 303–304, 360 dimensions of, 134 Roll surface deterioration, 73 ROMETER, 324–325 ROS, See Run-out simulator (ROS) ROT strip travel, See Run-out table strip travel Roughing mill work rolls compound rolls, testing of, 68 materials, evolution, 63–65 from chrome steel to high-speed steel, 64–65 early developments, 63–64 microstructural integrity, 65, 67 operational safety of, 66 performance of, 65–67 residual stress, 66–67 Run-out simulator (ROS), 157 Run-out table (ROT) strip travel dynamic characteristics of, 155–159 equivalent theorem of, 156–157 folded defect in, 155 maximum stable threading speed on, 156–159 similarity law for, 157–158 simulation model, 158 steady-state equation of motion for, 156 Runout tables (ROT) spray system characteristics, 44–45 S Scrap prices, 10 Seamless roll technologies, 357, 359–360 Self-excited vibration, 256 Semi-endless rolling, 26 Semi-high-speed steel (Semi-HSS), 65 production of, 67 safe and cost-efficient use of, 68Index 371 mill practices, 68–69 roll shop practices, 69 Sendzimir mill, 360–361; See also 20-High Sendzimir mill Sensors, 38, 245–246, 321, 358–359 continuous caster optimization of cut, 246–248 developments, 248–251 infrared, 245, 248, 253 and input/output upgrade solutions, 38 laser-based, 245 microwave, 245 noncontact, 245, 251–254 pulse radar, 246 scanning and positioning, 245 strip centering/camber and width measurement, 248 system examples in finishing, 254 hot rolling, 253–254 slab casting, 252–253 techniques, 251–252 temperature measurement, 245 width measurement of slab, 248 Service-oriented architecture (SOA), 282 SeverCorr, 7–8, 20–22 Shadowing verification tools, 42 Shape definition, 355 measurements, 357 innovations in, 358–360 noncontact, 357–359 seamless roll technologies, 357, 359–360 simulation program, 305 Shape and Crown Simulator, 342 Shape control, 357–358 actuators, 360–362 advancements in, 362–364 for cluster mill configuration, 363 multivariable techniques, 360, 362 for vertical stack mill configuration, 363 Shape factor (Q-factor), 277–278 Shapemeter–loopers, 322 Shearing of boundary film, 198 of CR lines, 17 Ship plate, 56 SI-Flat system, 327, 358–359 Singular value decomposition (SVD) method, 363–364 Skid marks curved skid riders impact on, 108 heating criteria for, 107 slice-to-slice method for, 107 Skid shadow effects, 107 Slab 2-D longitudinal section of, 105 heat flux into, 106 heating curves of, 108–110, 112 reheating, 16 relative thickness and length differences of, 133–134 surface scaling, 16 thermal stress modeling, 108–110 transfer furnaces, 17 Slab casters, 252–253, See also Medium-slab casters; Thin-slab casters Slab sizing press (SSP) installation, 47, 49–50 shutdown, 50 Slab temperature at exit from furnace, 101–105 modeling, 105–108 calculation domain, 105–106 numerical formulation, 106–107 and rolling forces, 101–102 Slip zone, 125, 180, 182, 187 Solid solution mechanisms, 56 Speed regulators, digitization of, 37 Speer’s theory, 103 Spin casting, 64 Spray flows, 221, 226 Spun-cast compound roll, principle of, 63 SSP, See Slab sizing press Stainless pins in slab lateral and longitudinal displacements of, 130–133 location and dimension of, 131 transverse distribution patterns of, 131–132 Statistical performance analysis for multivariable controller, 217 Steckel coiling furnace, 18 Steckel drums, tensile stresses of, 129–130, 134–135, 137 Steckel mills, 18, 128–129, 166 double-stand, 28–29 hot-rolling process of, 134–137 Steel mechanical properties of, 271 tetrahedral phosphate molecule reaction on surface of, 198 Steel grades different strategies for, 176–177 high carbon, 173 Steel rolling contact geometries in, 192 optimization, 142 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 164 St1PS steel strip energy–force and technological hot-rolling parameters for, 120 hot rolling mode of, 124–125 Straightness deviations, 287, 290 Strain rate and velocity field model, 300–301 Strengthening mechanisms, 56, 166, 169 Stresses unloading model, 305 Stressometer system, 320–321, 360 Strip camber, 133, 136, 290 casting, 9 centerline offset of, 133 displacement measuring systems, 291–292 exit gauge, 211 heat transfer on surface of, 165 leveling methods, 297–298 measured characteristics, 351 permeability measurement, 293 plastic deformation of, 135–136 residual stresses of, 129–130, 135–136 temperature, 134–135 temperature slices, evolution of, 223 thickness, 118–119 transverse temperature distribution of, 349–352 transverse tension distribution of, 129–130, 359 width variation in, 127, 131–133 Strip canoeing, critical temperature differences of, 166–167 Strip cooling modernization, 44 Strip crown, 334 of coils, 342–345 and strip thickness profile, 329–330 Strip deflection, vacuum suction force inducement of, 359 Strip flatness, 290, 330 of coils, 342–344 control methods, 297–298 inside rolling mill, 297 outside rolling stand, 297 deadband, 330 defect types, 330 measuring systems radial force, 291 requirements on, 293–294 Strip flatness probability, 150–153 Strip length, material properties constant over, 175 Strip manifest shape, 320 Strip modulus, 332 Strip profile, 19 calculation, 334–335 methods, 331 prediction and control models, 330–335 simplified mixed finite element method for, 331–332 tasks requiring accurate and rapid, 331 comparison of predicted and measured, 343 and flatness control, 335 model applications, 335–339 model development, 332–334 modeling control devices, 334 with offsets from mill centerline, 346 and strip crown, 329–330 thickness, 300, 308, 329–330, 334 with uniform and nonuniform roll cooling, 342–343 Strip pull force, 185–186 Strip-roll contact surfaces, 115–116 Strip shape deviations, 287 causes of, 287 classification of, 288 qualitative and quantitative assessment of, 294 Strip shape/flatness control problem, 356; See also Strip flatness Strip speeds, 133, 135 Strip-strain resistance model, 117 Strip velocity, 116 Strip waviness, 287–288 bounded by curved or straight lines, 289 calculating, 321 measuring systems, 292 reasons for, 320 Strip width, 293, 352 Structure–mechanical properties relationship model, 274 Super 22H, 85 Supervisory process control upgrade solutions, 40–41 Surface friction model, 301 Surface inspection benefits, 52 SVD method, See Singular value decomposition method Switchover trials, 42–43 System modeling, 210–213 T Tandem-finishing mill, 16, 19 Tandem mill system, 236–238 camera setup, 232, 236–237 wreck analysis, 238372 Index Tandem rolling, 272 Tangential stress model, 117 Tangshan Guofeng minimill, design parameters of CR line, 26, 28 Telescoping, 238 Temperature control coiling, 45–47 cooling, 172–173 finishing mill predictive, 219–228 Temperature model boundary conditions, 165 finishing mill, 222–223 two-dimensional, 165 Temperature state estimation, 223–224 Temper mill productivity optimization formulating optimization problem, 147–148 objective for, 147 results and discussion, 148–150 Temper mill system, camera setup, 233–234 Tensile stresses of Steckel drums, 129–130, 134–135, 137 of strip, 129–130, 135, 137 Tension stress model, 302, 310–311, 313 Thermal cracks, 75 Thermal fatigue (TF) tests, 75–76, 78 Thermo-mechanical controlled rolling (TMCR), 56–58 Thermo-mechanical control process (TMCP), 100 Thin-slab casters, 15–32 Thin wide strips contact stresses of, 118, 121 hot-rolling forces and power for, 116 hot rolling of, 115–125 state of stress in, 116–117 Third octave gauge chatter vibration, 257–259 Timoshenko beam elements, 332, 334–336 TMCP, See Thermo-mechanical control process TMCR, See Thermo-mechanical controlled rolling TopPlan system, 325 Torsional chatter vibration, 256 Transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel, 171 Transformation model, 273–274 Transverse equilibrium equation, 302 Triangulation lasermeters, 248 applications of, 250 principle of, 249 Tribocontact geometries, 192–193 Trico Steel-Decatur design parameters, 24–25 Triple-layer technology, 67 Tunnel furnace rolls energy considerations, 84 options, 84–86 Tuscaloosa Steel CR line, 28–29 Twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel, 171 Two-dimensional temperature model, 165 U Ultrafast water cooling systems, 18 Ultrafine-grain microstructure steel, material properties models for, 275 Ultra-low-carbon steel, material properties models for, 275 Ultrasonic test (UT), 68–69 Ultra-thin cold rolled sheets, 179 Ultrathin strip production (UTSP) line, design parameters of, 26 Uncertainty quantification (UQ), 141, 144 random variables, 144–145 and reliability analysis, 144 role in optimization, 146 Upstream drive model, 212 User interface and simulation options, 306 UT, See Ultrasonic test UTSP line, See Ultrathin strip production line V Variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) drives, 36–37 VCR/tape systems, 229, 231 VCS, See Video capture system Velocity field model, 300–301 Vertical stack mill configuration, 363 VHS tapes, 229–230 Vibrational analysis systems, 253 Vibrations, mill fifth octave chatter, 259–262 low-frequency forced, 256 modeling natural resonant, 256 third octave gauge chatter, 257–259 torsional chatter, 256 Vibration theory, 255–256 Video capture system (VCS) applications, 234, 238 camera setup and specifications, 231–233 features of, 230 network architecture of, 231 technical description, 230–231 von Mises stress, 137–138, 301 VVVF drives, See Variable voltage variable frequency drives W Walking-beam-type furnaces, 100 Water-cooled rolls, 84 heat balances for, 89–90 heat losses for, 86–87 Water cooling systems, 18–19 Wear tests, 73–75 Web-based Level 2 systems, 282 Weld-tracking analysis and verification, 236 Wide heavy-thickness coils, 162, 167 Wide-strip mills contact stresses in working stands of, analysis of, 121–122 hot rolling of steel strips in, 116 moment and main drive power calculation of, 122–125 rolling power calculation of, 122 Width necking, 133 mechanical models analyzing, 128–129 simulation using FEM, 136–137 Width variation during hot rolling, 127–139 Wilson–Walowit model, 193 Work roll (WR) cooling pattern, 341–342 on strip profile, 342–343 exaggerated elastic deformation of, 193 flattening stiffness, 332 roughing mill, See Roughing mill work rolls temperature, 341–342 temperature field, 303 thermal crown model, 303 uniform cooling of, 343 Work roll bending (WRB), 147, 343, 345 Work roll-strip interface, 192 WR, See Work roll Wuhan Iron & Steel (Group) Corporation (WISCO), 175 Y Yield strength, 67, 134–136, 144–145, 169, 267 Yield stress drop, 311, 314
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